Antimicrobial Use and Management of Childhood Diarrhea at Community Drug Retail Outlets in Eastern Ethiopia: A Matched Questionnaire-Based and Simulated Patient-Case Study

References

• World Health Organization. The Evolving Threat of Antimicrobial Resistance: Options for Action. World Health Organization; 2012.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report on Surveillance. World Health Organization; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Ameko E, Achio S, Alhassan S. Effects of antibiotic self-medication on the efficacy of four antibiotics commonly used in Ghana on clinically isolated micro organisms. Int J Pure Appl Sci Technol. 2012;10:62.
   Google Scholar
• Laxminarayan R, Duse A, Wattal C, et al. Antibiotic resistance—the need for global solutions. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13(12):1057–1098. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70318-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon SL, Oliver KB. Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States: stepping back from the brink. Am Fam Physician. 2014;89(12):938–941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seale AC, Gordon NC, Islam J, Peacock SJ, Scott JAG. AMR Surveillance in low and middle-income settings - A roadmap for participation in the Global Antimicrobial Surveillance System (GLASS). Wellcome Open Res. 2017;2:92. doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.12527.1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Provenzani A, Hospodar AR, Meyer AL, et al. Multidrug-resistant gram-negative organisms: a review of recently approved antibiotics and novel pipeline agents. Int J Clin Pharm. 2020;42(4):1016–1025. doi:10.1007/s11096-020-01089-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okeke IN, Edelman R. Dissemination of antibiotic-resistant bacteria across geographic borders. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33(3):364–369. doi:10.1086/321877
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tse BN, Adalja AA, Houchens C, Larsen J, Inglesby TV, Hatchett R. Challenges and opportunities of nontraditional approaches to treating bacterial infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(3):495–500. doi:10.1093/cid/cix320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Medicines use in primary care in developing and transitional countries: fact book summarizing results from studies reported between 1990 and 2006; 2009. Available from: http://appswhoint/medicinedocs/documents/s16073e/s16073epdf. Accessed May 20, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Okeke IN, Laxminarayan R, Bhutta ZA, et al. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part I: recent trends and current status. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(8):481–493. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70189-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okeke IN, Klugman KP, Bhutta ZA, et al. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part II: strategies for containment. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(9):568–580. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70217-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cars O, Nordberg P. Antibiotic resistance–The faceless threat. Int J Risk Saf Med. 2005;17:103–110.
   Google Scholar
• Cars O, Högberg LD, Murray M, et al. Meeting the challenge of antibiotic resistance. BMJ. 2008;337:337. doi:10.1136/bmj.a1438
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abuirmeileh A, Samara S, Alkhodari A, Bahnassi A, Talhouni A, Hayallah AM. Antibiotic dispensing without prescription in Jordanian community pharmacies: a pharmacist’s perspective. Bull Pharmaceut Sci Assiut. 2014;37(1):51–63. doi:10.21608/bfsa.2014.62622
   Google Scholar
• Al-Faham Z, Habboub G, Takriti F. The sale of antibiotics without prescription in pharmacies in Damascus, Syria. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2011;5(05):396–399. doi:10.3855/jidc.1248
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabry NA, Farid SF, Dawoud DM. Antibiotic dispensing in Egyptian community pharmacies: an observational study. Res Soc Adm Pharm. 2014;10(1):168–184. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2013.03.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chacko CT, Prakash D, Hafsa P, Lallu J, Sarabaya A. A review on the attitude and practice on self medication, storage and disposal of drugs in a community. Int J Res Rev. 2020;7:122–129.
   Google Scholar
• Noah D, Fidas G. The Global Infectious Disease Threat and Its Implications for the United States. Washington DC: National Intelligence Council; 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Apisarnthanarak A, Tunpornchai J, Tanawitt K, Mundy LM. Nonjudicious dispensing of antibiotics by drug stores in Pratumthani, Thailand. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29(6):572–575. doi:10.1086/587496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goossens H, Ferech M, Vander Stichele R, Elseviers M. Outpatient antibiotic use in Europe and association with resistance: a cross-national database study. Lancet. 2005;365(9459):579–587. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17907-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadi U, Duerink DO, Lestari ES, et al. Survey of antibiotic use of individuals visiting public healthcare facilities in Indonesia. Int J Infect Dis. 2008;12(6):622–629. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2008.01.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livermore DM. Minimising antibiotic resistance. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(7):450–459. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70166-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plachouras D, Kavatha D, Antoniadou A, et al. Dispensing of antibiotics without prescription in Greece, 2008: another link in the antibiotic resistance chain. Eurosurveillance. 2010;15(7):19488. doi:10.2807/ese.15.07.19488-en
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Antimicrobial resistance: draft global action plan on antimicrobial resistance. Geneva, Switzerland; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. The world medicines situation: rational use of medicines. Geneva, Switzerland; 2011.
   Google Scholar
• FMHACA. Standard treatment guidelines for general hospitals. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: FMHACA; 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Shane AL, Mody RK, Crump JA, et al. 2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of infectious diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(12):e45–e80. doi:10.1093/cid/cix669
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins JC, Chong WW, de Almeida Neto AC, Moles RJ, Schneider CR. The simulated patient method: design and application in health services research. Res Soc Adm Pharm. 2021;17(12):2108–2115. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2021.04.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson PF, Petrie A. Method agreement analysis: a review of correct methodology. Theriogenology. 2010;73(9):1167–1179. doi:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.01.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic. Biochem Med. 2012;22:276–282. doi:10.11613/BM.2012.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baraka MA, Alsultan H, Alsalman T, Alaithan H, Islam MA, Alasseri AA. Health care providers’ perceptions regarding antimicrobial stewardship programs (AMS) implementation-facilitators and challenges: a cross-sectional study in the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2019;18(1):26. doi:10.1186/s12941-019-0325-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotwani A, Joshi PC, Jhamb U, Holloway K. Prescriber and dispenser perceptions about antibiotic use in acute uncomplicated childhood diarrhea and upper respiratory tract infection in New Delhi: qualitative study. Indian J Pharmacol. 2017;49(6):419–431. doi:10.4103/ijp.IJP_508_17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muloi D, Fèvre EM, Bettridge J, et al. A cross-sectional survey of practices and knowledge among antibiotic retailers in Nairobi, Kenya. J Glob Health. 2019;9(2):010412. doi:10.7189/jogh.09.020412
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chanvatik S, Kosiyaporn H, Lekagul A, et al. Knowledge and use of antibiotics in Thailand: a 2017 national household survey. PLoS One. 2019;14(8):e0220990. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0220990
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng Z, Hayat K, Huang Z, et al. Knowledge, attitude, and practices of community pharmacy staff toward antimicrobial stewardship programs: a cross-sectional study from Northeastern China. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2021;19(4):529–536. doi:10.1080/14787210.2021.1826307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darj E, Newaz MS, Zaman MH. Pharmacists’ perception of their challenges at work, focusing on antimicrobial resistance: a qualitative study from Bangladesh. Glob Health Action. 2019;12(sup1):1735126. doi:10.1080/16549716.2020.1735126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darwish RM, Baqain GN, Aladwan H, Salamah LM, Madi R, Al Masri RM. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antibiotic use and resistance among community pharmacists: a cross sectional study in Jordan. Int J Clin Pharm. 2021;1–10. doi:10.1007/s11096-020-01222-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones LF, Owens R, Sallis A, et al. Qualitative study using interviews and focus groups to explore the current and potential for antimicrobial stewardship in community pharmacy informed by the Theoretical Domains Framework. BMJ open. 2018;8(12):e025101. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-025101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gebretekle GB, Haile Mariam D, Abebe W, et al. Opportunities and barriers to implementing antibiotic stewardship in low and middle-income countries: lessons from a mixed-methods study in a tertiary care hospital in Ethiopia. PLoS One. 2018;13(12):e0208447. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0208447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaae S, Malaj A, Hoxha I. Antibiotic knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of Albanian health care professionals and patients - a qualitative interview study. J Pharmaceut Policy Pract. 2017;10(1):13. doi:10.1186/s40545-017-0102-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vandepitte WP, Ponthong R, Srisarang S. treatment outcomes of the uncomplicated upper respiratory tract infection and acute diarrhea in preschool children comparing those with and without antibiotic prescription. J Med Assoc Thai. 2015;98(10):974–984.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wondimsigegn D, Woldegerima B, Taddese AA. History taking and response to an adult diarrheal case among community drug retail outlets in Gondar town, north-west Ethiopia: a simulated-client survey. J Pharmaceut Policy Pract. 2021;14(1):26. doi:10.1186/s40545-021-00310-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Husaini DC, Abubakar Y, Harris-Thurton L, Mphuthi DD. Over-the-counter sales of antibiotics at community pharmacies in Belize: a cross-sectional simulated client visit study. Int J Integr Med Sci. 2021;8. doi:10.15342/ijms.2021.455
   Google Scholar
• Malik UR, Chang J, Hashmi F, et al. A simulated client exploration of nonprescription dispensing of antibiotics at drugstores for pediatric acute diarrhea and upper respiratory infection in Lahore, Pakistan. Infect Drug Resist. 2021;14:1129–1140. doi:10.2147/IDR.S301812
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zawahir S, Lekamwasam S, Aslani P. Community pharmacy staff’s response to symptoms of common infections: a pseudo-patient study. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2019;8(1):60. doi:10.1186/s13756-019-0510-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erku DA, Aberra SY. Non-prescribed sale of antibiotics for acute childhood diarrhea and upper respiratory tract infection in community pharmacies: a 2 phase mixed-methods study. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2018;7(1):92. doi:10.1186/s13756-018-0389-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayele AA, Mekuria AB, Tegegn HG, Gebresillassie BM, Mekonnen AB, Erku DA. Management of minor ailments in a community pharmacy setting: findings from simulated visits and qualitative study in Gondar town, Ethiopia. PLoS One. 2018;13(1):e0190583. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0190583
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diwan V, Sabde YD, Byström E, De Costa A. Treatment of pediatric diarrhea: a simulated client study at private pharmacies of Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, India. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2015;9(05):505–511. doi:10.3855/jidc.5694
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogbo PU, Aina BA, Aderemi-Williams RI. Management of acute diarrhea in children by community pharmacists in Lagos, Nigeria. Pharm Pract (Granada). 2014;12(1):376. doi:10.4321/S1886-36552014000100002
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saengcharoen W, Lerkiatbundit S. Practice and attitudes regarding the management of childhood diarrhoea among pharmacies in Thailand. Int J Pharm Pract. 2010;18(6):323–331. doi:10.1111/j.2042-7174.2010.00066.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rhee C, Aol G, Ouma A, et al. Inappropriate use of antibiotics for childhood diarrhea case management - Kenya, 2009–2016. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(S3):468. doi:10.1186/s12889-019-6771-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batista AD, Arodrigues D, Figueiras A, Zapata-Cachafeiro M, Roque F, Herdeiro MT. Antibiotic dispensation without a prescription worldwide: a systematic review. Antibiotics. 2020;9(11). doi:10.3390/antibiotics9110786
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khamsarn S, Nampoonsak Y, Busamaro S, et al. Epidemiology of antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance in selected communities in Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai. 2016;99(3):270–275.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramirez J, Guarner F, Bustos Fernandez L, Maruy A, Sdepanian VL, Cohen H. Antibiotics as major disruptors of gut microbiota. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020;10:572912. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.572912
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acharya Y, Nepal P, Yang D, et al. Economic and social drivers of antibiotic dispensing practices among community pharmacies in Nepal. Trop Med Intl Health. 2021;26(5):557–571. doi:10.1111/tmi.13555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zawahir S, Lekamwasam S, Aslani P. A cross-sectional national survey of community pharmacy staff: knowledge and antibiotic provision. PLoS One. 2019;14(4):e0215484. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215484
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belachew SA, Hall L, Selvey LA. Non-prescription dispensing of antibiotic agents among community drug retail outlets in Sub-Saharan African countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2021;10(1):13. doi:10.1186/s13756-020-00880-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viberg N, Kalala W, Mujinja P, Tomson G, Lundborg CS. “Practical knowledge” and perceptions of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance among drugsellers in Tanzanian private drugstores. BMC Infect Dis. 2010;10(1):270. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-10-270
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdel-Qader DH, Albassam A, Ismael NS, et al. Community pharmacists’ knowledge of and attitudes toward antibiotic use, resistance, and self-medication in Jordan. Drugs Ther Perspect. 2021;37(1):44–53. doi:10.1007/s40267-020-00797-9
   Google Scholar
• Chareonkul C, Khun VL, Boonshuyar C. Rational drug use in Cambodia: study of three pilot health centers in Kampong Thom Province. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2002;33(2):418–424.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dillip A, Embrey M, Shekalaghe E, et al. What motivates antibiotic dispensing in accredited drug dispensing outlets in Tanzania? A qualitative study. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2015;4(1):30. doi:10.1186/s13756-015-0073-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar