Current Challenges in the Diagnosis and Management of Selective Mutism in Children

References

• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. fifth ed. Burlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th revision); 2018. Retrieved from https://icd.who.int. Accessed February 4, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Viana AG, Beidel DC, Rabian B. Selective mutism: a review and integration of the last 15 years. Clin Psychol Rev. 2009;29(1):57–67. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.09.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remschmidt H, Poller M, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Hennighausen K, Gutenbrunner C. A follow-up study of 45 patients with elective mutism. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001;251:284–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinhausen HC, Wachter M, Laimböck K, Winkler Metzke C. A long-term outcome study of selective mutism in childhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2006;47:751–756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kussmaul A. Die Störungen Der Sprache (The Disturbances of Speech). Basel, Switzerland: Benno Schwabe; 1877.
   Google Scholar
• Tramer M. Elektiver Mutismus bei Kindern (Elective mutism in children). Z Kinderpsychiatr. 1934;1:30–35.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. fourth ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Driessen J, Blom JD, Muris P, Blashfield RK, Molendijk M. Anxiety in children with selective mutism: a meta-analysis. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2020;51:330–341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogel F, Gensthaler A, Stahl J, Schwenck C. Fears and fear-related cognitions in children with selective mutism. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;28(9):1169–1181. doi:10.1007/s00787-019-01281-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genthaler A, Khalaf S, Ligges M, Kaess M, Freitag CM, Schwenck C. Selective mutism and temperament: the silence and behavioral inhibition to the unfamiliar. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;25:1113–1120. doi:10.1007/s00787-016-0835-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milic MI, Carl T, Rapee RM. Similarities and differences between young children with selective mutism and social anxiety disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2020;133:103696. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2020.103696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muris P, Hendriks E, Bot S. Children of few words: relations among selective mutism, behavioral inhibition, and (social) anxiety symptoms in 3- to 6-year-olds. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2016;47(1):94–101. doi:10.1007/s10578-015-0547-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagan J. Galen’s Prophecy: Temperament in Human Nature. New York: Routledge; 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Clauss JA, Blackford JU. Behavioral inhibition and the risk for developing social anxiety disorder: a meta-analytic study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012;51:1066–1075. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ollendick TH, Benoit K. A parent-child interactional model of social anxiety disorder in youth. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2012;15:81–91. doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0108-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharp WG, Sherman C, Gross AM. Selective mutism and anxiety: a review of the current conceptualization of the disorder. J Anx Disord. 2007;21(4):568–579. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.07.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bögels SM, Alden L, Beidel DC, et al. Social anxiety disorder: questions and answers for DSM-V. Depress Anxiety. 2010;27:168–189. doi:10.1002/da.20670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gensthaler A, Maichrowitz V, Kaess M, Ligges M, Freitag CM, Schwenck C. Selective mutism: the fraternal twin of childhood social phobia. Psychopathology. 2016;49(2):95–107. doi:10.1159/000444882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manassis K, Fung D, Tannock R, Sloman L, Fiksenbaum L, McInnes A. Characterizing selective mutism: is it more than social anxiety? Depress Anxiety. 2003;18(3):153–161. doi:10.1002/da.10125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poole KL, Cunningham CE, McHolm AE, Schmidt LA. Distinguishing selective mutism and social anxiety in children: a multi-method study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2020. doi:10.1007/s00787-020-01588-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeganeh R, Beidel DC, Turner SM. Selective mutism: more than social anxiety? Depress Anxiety. 2006;23(3):117–123. doi:10.1002/da.20139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albano AM, Silverman WK. Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children and Parents, DSM-IV Version. New York: Graywind; 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Axelson D, Pereplitchikova F, Brent D, Ryan N. The K-SADS-PL DSM-5. Baltimore, MD: Kennedy Krieger Institute; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Bergman RL, Keller ML, Piacentini J, Bergman AJ. The development and psychometric properties of the Selective Mutism Questionnaire. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2019;28(2):456–464. doi:10.1080/15374410801955805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Letamendi AM, Chavira DA, Hitchcock CA, Roesch SC, Shipon-Blum E, Stein MB. Selective Mutism Questionnaire: measurement structure and validity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008;47(10):1197–1204. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181825a7b
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oerbeck B, Overgaard KR, Bergman RL, Pripp AH, Kristensen H. The Selective Mutism Questionnaire: data from typically developing children and children with selective mutism. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2020;25(4):754–765. doi:10.1177/1359104520914695
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gensthaler A, Dieter J, Raisig S, et al. Evaluation of a novel parent-rated scale for selective mutism. Assessment. 2020;27(5):1007–1015. doi:10.1177/1073191118787328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergman RL, Piacentini J, McCracken JT. Prevalence and description of selective mutism in a school-based sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41(8):938–946. doi:10.1097/00004583-200208000-00012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spence SH. Assessment of fear and anxiety in preschool children: parent and teacher report. In: Fisak B, Barrett P, editors. Anxiety in Preschool Children: Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention. New York: Routledge; 2019.
   Google Scholar
• LaGreca AM, Stone WL. Social Anxiety Scale for Children-Revised: factor structure and concurrent validity. J Clin Child Psychol. 2016;49(1):17–27. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2201_2
   Google Scholar
• Beidel DC, Turner SM, Morris TL. A new inventory to assess childhood social anxiety and phobia: the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children. Psychol Asses. 1995;7(1):73–79. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.7.1.73
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendall PC. Treating anxiety disorders in children: results of a randomized clinical trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1994;62(1):100–110. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.62.1.100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang C, Nir Z, Gothelf A, et al. The outcome of children with selective mutism following cognitive behavioral intervention: a follow-up. Eur J Pediatr. 2016;175:481–487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anstendig K. Selective mutism: a review of the treatment literature by modality from 1980–1996. Psychother. 1998;35:381–391.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohan SL, Chavira SL, Stein MB. Practitioner review: psychosocial interventions for children with selective mutism: a critical evaluation of the literature from 1990–2005. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2006;47:1085–1097.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zakszeski BN, DuPaul GJ. Reinforce, shape, expose, and fade: a review of treatments for selective mutism (2005–2015). School Ment Health. 2017;9:1–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergman RL, Gonzales A, Piacentini J, Keller ML. Integrated behavior therapy for children with selective mutism. Behav Res Ther. 2013;51:680–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornacchio D, Furr JM, Sanchez AL, et al. Intensive group behavioral treatment for children with selective mutism: a preliminary randomized clinical trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2019;87:720–733.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oerbeck B, Stein MB, Wentzel-Larsen T, Langsrud O, Kristensen H. A randomized controlled trial of a home and school-based intervention for selective mutism: defocused communication and behavioural techniques. Child Adolesc Mental Health. 2014;19:192–198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oerbeck B, Overgaard KR, Stein MB, Pripp AH, Kristensen H. Treatment of selective mutism: a 5-year follow-up. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018;27:997–1009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ollendick TH, March JS. Phobic and Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents: A Clinician’s Guide to Effective Psychosocial and Pharmacological Interventions. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Muris P. Treatment of childhood anxiety disorders: what is the place for antidepressants? Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2012;13:43–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walkup JT, Albano AM, Piacentini J, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy, sertraline, or a combination in childhood anxiety. New Engl J Med. 2008;359:2753–2766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manassis K, Oerbeck B, Overgaard KR. The use of medication in selective mutism: a systematic review. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;25:571–578.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostergaard KR. Treatment of selective mutism based on cognitive behavioral therapy, psychopharmacology, and combination therapy: a systematic review. Nord J Psychiatry. 2018;72:240–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapee RM. The development and modification of temperamental risk for anxiety disorders: prevention of a lifetime of anxiety? Biol Psychiatry. 2002;52:947–957.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirshfeld-Becker DR, Masek B, Henin A, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy for 4–7-year-old children with anxiety disorders: a randomized clinical trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2010;78:498–510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapee RM, Edwards SL. A selective intervention program for inhibited preschool-aged children of parents with an anxiety disorder: effects on current anxiety disorders and temperament. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48:602–609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapee RM, Edwards SL. Altering the trajectory of anxiety in at risk young children. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167:1518–1525.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapee RM, Kennedy S, Ingram M, Edwards S, Prevention SL. Early Intervention of Anxiety Disorders in Inhibited Preschool Children. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73:488–497.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rapee RM, Kennedy SJ, Ingram M, Edwards SL, Sweeney L. Altering the trajectory of anxiety in at-risk young children. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167:1518–1525.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kazdin AE. Evidence-based treatment and practice: new opportunities to bridge clinical research and practice, enhance the knowledge base, and improve patient care. Am Psychologist. 2008;63:146–159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wonders LL. Play therapy for children with selective mutism. In: Kaduson HG, Cangelosi D, Schaefer CE, editors. Prescriptive Play Therapy: Tailoring Interventions for Specific Childhood Problems. New York: Guilford Press; 2020:92–104.
   Google Scholar
• Steinhausen HC, Juzi C. Elective mutism: an analysis of 100 cases. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35:606–614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristensen H. Developmental disorder/delay, anxiety disorder, and elimination disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:249–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manassis K, Tannock R, Garland EJ, Minde K, McInnes A, Clark S. The sounds of silence: language, cognition, and anxiety in selective mutism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:1187–1195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohan SL, Chavira DA, Shipon-Blum E, Hitchcock C, Roesch SC, Stein MB. Refining the classification of children with selective mutism: a latent profile analysis. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2008;37:770–784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dow SP, Sonies BC, Scheib D, Moss SE, Leonard HL. Practical guidelines for the assessment and treatment of selective mutism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34:836–846.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn LM, Dunn DM. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (4th Edition). Minneapolis, MN: Pearson Assessments; 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Klein ER, Armstrong SL, Shipon-Blum E. Assessing spoken language competence in children with selective mutism: using parents as test presenters. Commun Disord Q. 2012;34:184–185.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffenburg H, Steffenburg S, Gillberg C, Billstedt E. Autism spectrum disorder in children with selective mutism. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2018;14:1163–1169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein ER, Ruiz CE, Morales K, Stanley P. Variations in parent and teacher ratings of internalizing, externalizing, adaptive skills, and behavioral symptoms in children with selective mutism. Int J Env Res Public Health. 2019;16:4070.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds C, Kamphaus R. The Behavior Assessment System for Children. 3rd ed. Minneapolis, MN: Pearson Assessments; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Nowakowski ME, Tasker SL, Cunningham CE, et al. Joint attention in parent-child dyads involving children with selective mutism. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2011;42:78–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein MB, Yang BZ, Chavira DA, et al. A common genetic variant in the neurexin superfamily member CNTNAP2 is associated with increased risk for selective mutism and social anxiety traits. Biol Psychiatry. 2011;69:825–831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muris P, Ollendick TH. Selective mutism and its relations to social anxiety disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2021:1–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkmar F, Siegel M, Woodbury-Smith M, King B, McCracken J, State M. Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014;53:237–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutter M, Bailey A, Lord C. Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services; 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Lord C, Rutter M, DiLavore PS, Risi S. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services; 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Lord C, Rutter M, Le Couteur A. Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R): a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 1994;24:659–685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chalfant AM, Rapee RM, Carroll L. Treating anxiety disorders in children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders: a controlled trial. J Autism Dev Disord. 2007;37:1842–1857.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallathra AA, Calkins ME, Parish-Morris J, et al. Defining behavioral components of social functioning in adults with autism spectrum disorder as targets for treatment. Autism Res. 2018;11:488–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohan SL, Price JM, Stein MB. Suffering in silence: why a developmental psychopathology perspective in selective mutism is needed. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2006;27:341–355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muris P, Ollendick TH. Children who are anxious in silence: a review on selective mutism, the new anxiety disorder in DSM-5. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2015;18:151–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar