535
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
ORIGINAL RESEARCH

A Real-World Data Study on the Impact of the ReadRx Cognitive Training and Reading Intervention on Cognition, Basic Reading Ability, and Psychosocial Skills for 3527 Children

ORCID Icon, , &
Pages 1195-1220 | Received 29 Nov 2022, Accepted 11 Apr 2023, Published online: 17 Apr 2023

References

  • Irwin V, Zhang J, Wang X, et al. Report on the condition of education 2021 (NCES 2021-144). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics; 2021. Available from https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2021144. Accessed April 13, 2023.
  • Blau V, Reithler J, van Atteveldt N, et al. Deviant processing of letters and speech sounds as proximate cause of reading failure: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of dyslexic children. Brain. 2010;133(3):868–879. doi:10.1093/brain/awp308
  • Castles A, Rastle K, Nation K. Ending the reading wars: reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychol Sci Public Interest. 2018;19(1):5–51. doi:10.1177/1529100618772271
  • Snowling MJ, Hulme C, Nationa K. The Science of Reading: A Handbook. 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons; 2022.
  • Buckingham J, Wheldall R, Wheldall K. Systematic and explicit phonics instruction: a scientific, evidence-based approach to teaching the alphabetic principle. In: Cox R, Feez S, Beveridge L, editors. The Alphabetic Principle and Beyond. Primary English Teaching Association Australia; 2019:49–67.
  • The Reading League. Science of reading: defining guide; 2022. Available from: https://www.thereadingleague.org/what-is-The-science-of-reading/. Accessed April 13, 2023.
  • Gough PB, Tunmer WE. Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial Special Educ. 1986;7:6–10. doi:10.1177/074193258600700104
  • Scarborough HS. Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: evidence, theory, and practice. In: Neuman S, Dickinson D, editors. Handbook for Research in Early Literacy. Guilford Press; 2001:97–110.
  • Ehri LC. The science of learning to read words: a case for systematic phonics instruction. Read Res Q. 2020;55(S1):S45–S60 . doi:10.1002/rrq.334
  • Schneider WJ, McGrew KS. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities. In: Flanagan DP, McDonough EM, editors. Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests, and Issues. 4th ed. Guildford Press; 2020:73–163.
  • Fostick L, Revah H. Dyslexia as a multi-deficit disorder: working memory and auditory temporal processing. Acta Psychologica. 2018;183:19–28. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.12.010
  • Rappolt-Schlichtmann G, Boucher AR, Evans M, et al. From deficit remediation to capacity building: learning to enable rather than disable children with dyslexia. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch. 2018;49(4):864–874. doi:10.1044/2018_LSHSS-DYSLC-18-0031
  • Gray S, Fox AB, Green S, et al. Working memory profiles of children with dyslexia, developmental language disorder, or both. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2019;62(6):1839–1858. doi:10.1044/2019_JSLHR-L-18-0148
  • Maehler C, Joerns C, Schuchardt K. Training working memory of children with and without dyslexia. Children. 2019;6(3):47. doi:10.3390/children6030047
  • Park H, Lombardino LJ. Relationships among cognitive deficits and component skills of reading in younger and older children with developmental dyslexia. Res Dev Disabil. 2013;34(9):2946–2958. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.06.002
  • Chamberlain R, Brunswick N, Siev J, McManus IC. Meta-analytic findings reveal lower means but higher variances in visuospatial ability in dyslexia. Br J Psychol. 2018;109(4):897–916. doi:10.1111/bjop.12321
  • Chong A, Normah CD, Ibrahim N, Ahmad M, Pheh KS, Razak RA. A review on phonological awareness and visual-spatial ability among children with dyslexia. Malay J Health Sci. 2018;20:145–154. doi:10.17576/JSKM-2018-20
  • Booth JN, Boyle JME, Kelly SW. The relationship between inhibition and working memory in predicting children’s reading difficulties. J Res Read. 2014;37(1):84–101. doi:10.1111/1467-9817.12011
  • Gabay Y, Karni A, Banai K. The perceptual learning of time-compressed speech: a comparison of training protocols with different levels of difficulty. PLoS One. 2017;12(5):e0176488. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176488
  • Stenneken P, Egetemeir J, Schulte-Korne G, Muller H, Schneider WX, Finke K. Slow perceptual processing speed at the core of developmental dyslexia: a parameter-based assessment of visual attention. Neuropsychologia. 2011;49(12):3454–3465. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.08.021
  • Barnes MA, Clemens NH, Fall A-M, et al. Cognitive predictors of difficulties in math and reading in pre-kindergarten children at high risk for learning disabilities. J Educ Psychol. 2020;112(4):685–700. doi:10.1037/edu0000404
  • Morgan PL, Farkas G, Hillemeier MM, Pun WH, Maczuga S. Kindergarten children’s executive functions predict their second-grade academic achievement and behavior. Child Dev. 2019;90(5):1802–1816. doi:10.1111/cdev.13095
  • Varvara P, Varuzza C, Sorrentino A, Vicari S, Menghini D. Executive functions in developmental dyslexia. Front Hum Neurosci. 2014;8(120):1–8. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00120
  • Wilson AM, Ahmed H, Mead N, et al. Neurocognitive predictors of response to intervention with GraphoGame Rime. Front Educ. 2021;6:639294. doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.639294
  • Cho E, Roberts GJ, Capin P, Roberts G, Miciak J, Vaughn S. Cognitive attributes, attention, and self-efficacy of adequate and inadequate responders in a fourth grade reading intervention. Learn Disabil Res Pract. 2015;30(4):159–170. doi:10.1111/ldrp.12088
  • Pennington BF. From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition. 2006;101(2):385–413. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008
  • Christodoulou JA, Cyr A, Murtagh J, et al. Impact of intensive summer reading intervention for children with reading disabilities and difficulties in early elementary school. J Learn Disabil. 2017;50(2):115–127. doi:10.1177/0022219415617163
  • Stevens E, Austin C, Moore C, Scammacca N, Boucher A, Vaughn S. Current state of the evidence: examining the effects of Orton-Gillingham reading interventions for children with or at-risk for word-level reading disabilities. Except Child. 2021;87(4):397–417. doi:10.1177/0014402921993406
  • Lipowska M, Łada AB, Pawlicka P, Jurek P. The use of the Warnke Method in dyslexia therapy for children. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2019;64:1–11. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101060
  • Catts HW, Petscher Y. A cumulative risk and resilience model of dyslexia. J Learn Disabil. 2022;55(3):171–184. doi:10.1177/00222194211037062
  • Czamara D, Tiesler C, Kohlböck G, et al. Children with ADHD symptoms have a higher risk for reading, spelling and math difficulties in the GINIplus and LISAplus cohort studies. PLoS One. 2013;8(5):e63859. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063859
  • Peterson RL, Boada R, McGrath LM, Willcutt EG, Olson RK, Pennington BF. Cognitive prediction of reading, math, and attention: shared and unique influences. J Learn Disabil. 2017;50(4):408–421. doi:10.1177/0022219415618500
  • Willcutt EG, Betjemann RS, McGrath LM, et al. Etiology and neuropsychology of comorbidity between RD and ADHD: the case for multiple-deficit models. Cortex. 2010;46(10):1345–1361. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2010.06.009
  • Doyle AE, Vuijk PJ, Doty ND, et al. Cross-disorder cognitive impairments in youth referred for neuropsychiatric evaluation. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2017;24:91–103. doi:10.1017/s1355617717000601
  • Willcutt EG, Sonuga-Barke EJS, Nigg JT, Sergeant JA. Recent developments in neuropsychological models of childhood disorders. Adv Biol Psychiatry. 2008;24:195–226.
  • Stewart AA, Austin CR. Reading interventions for children with or at risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. Remedial Special Educ. 2020;41(6):352–367. doi:10.1177/0741932519849660
  • Luoni C, Balottin U, Zaccagnino M, Brembilla L, Livetti G, Termine C. Reading difficulties and attention-deficit/hyperactivity behaviours: evidence of an early association in a nonclinical sample. J Res Read. 2015;38(1):73–90. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2013.01555.x
  • Pennington BF. Diagnosing Learning Disorders: A Neuropsychological Framework. 2nd ed. Guilford Press; 2009.
  • Church JA, Cirino PT, Miciak J, Juranek J, Vaughn S, Fletcher JM. Cognitive, intervention, and neuroimaging perspectives on executive function in children with reading disabilities. N Direct Child Adolesc Dev. 2019;165:25–54. doi:10.1002/cad.20292
  • Mayes SD, Calhoun SL, Bixler EO, Zimmerman DN. IQ and neuropsychological predictors of academic achievement. Learn Individ Differ. 2009;19(2):238–241. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2008.09.001
  • Morris RD, Lovett MW, Wolf M, et al. Multiple-component remediation for developmental reading disabilities: IQ, socioeconomic status, and race as factors in remedial outcome. J Learn Disabil. 2012;45(2):99–127. doi:10.1177/0022219409355472
  • Stuebing KK, Barth AE, Molfese PJ, Weiss B, Fletcher JM. IQ is not strongly related to response to reading instruction: a meta-analytic interpretation. Except Child. 2009;76(1):31–51. doi:10.1177/001440290907600102
  • Shaywitz SE, Morris R, Shaywitz B. The education of dyslexic children from childhood to young adulthood. Ann Rev Psychol. 2008;59:451–475. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093633
  • Stage SA, Abbott RD, Jenkins JR, Berninger VW. Predicting response to early reading intervention from verbal IQ, reading-related language abilities, attention ratings, and verbal IQ-word reading discrepancy: failure to validate discrepancy method. J Learn Disabil. 2003;36(1):24–33. doi:10.1177/00222194030360010401
  • Fuchs D, Young CL. On the irrelevance of intelligence in predicting responsiveness to reading instruction. Except Child. 2006;73(1):8–30. doi:10.1177/001440290607300101
  • Reilly D, Neumann DL, Andrews G. Gender differences in reading and writing achievement: evidence from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Am Psychol. 2019;74(4):445–458. doi:10.1037/amp0000356
  • Wilson AM, Lesaux NK. Persistence of phonological processing deficits in college students with dyslexia who have age-appropriate reading skills. J Learn Disabil. 2001;34(5):394–400. doi:10.1177/002221940103400501
  • Pfost M, Hattie J, Dörfler T, Artelt C. Individual differences in reading development: a review of 25 years of empirical research on Matthew effects in reading. Rev Educ Res. 2014;84(2):203–244. doi:10.3102/0034654313509492
  • Gibson K, Mitchell T, Tenpas D. ReadRx Sound-to-Code Reading and Spelling Program. Colorado Springs, CO: LearningRx; 2003.
  • Gibson K. ThinkRx: Cognitive Training Procedures Workbook. Colorado Springs, CO: LearningRx; 2003.
  • Carpenter D, Ledbetter C, Moore AL. LearningRx cognitive training effects in children ages 8–14: a randomized controlled study. Appl Cogn Psychol. 2016;30(5):815–826. doi:10.1002/acp.3257
  • Gibson K, Carpenter DM, Moore AL, Mitchell T. Training the brain to learn: beyond vision therapy. Vision Dev Rehabil. 2015;1(2):120–129.
  • Jedlicka E. LearningRx cognitive training for children and adolescents ages 5–18: effects on academic skills, behavior, and cognition. Front Educ. 2017;2(62). doi:10.3389/feduc.2017.00062
  • Moore AL, Carpenter DM, Miller TM, Ledbetter C. Comparing two methods of delivering ThinkRx cognitive training to children ages 8–14: a randomized controlled trial of equivalency. J Cognitive Enhancement. 2019;3(3):261–270. doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0094-z
  • Moore AL, Miller TM, Ledbetter C. Remote vs. in-person delivery of LearningRx one-on-one cognitive training during the COVID-19 pandemic: a non-inferiority study. Front Psychol. 2021;12:749898. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749898
  • Lam EA, McMaster KL. Predictors of responsiveness to early literacy intervention: a 10-year update. Learn Disabil Quart. 2014;37(3):134–147. doi:10.1177/0731948714529772
  • Woodcock RW, McGrew KS, Mather N. Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing; 2001.
  • Woodcock RW, McGrew KS, Mather N. Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing; 2001.
  • Nouwens S, Groen MA, Verhoeven L. How working memory relates to “children’s reading comprehension: the importance of domain-specificity in storage and processing. Read Writ. 2017;30(1):105–120. doi:10.1007/s11145-016-9665-5
  • Memisevic H, Dedic A, Malec D. Differentiating between good readers and poor readers: the role of linguistic and cognitive factors. Eur J Educ Pedag. 2022;3(1):31–36. doi:10.24018/ejedu
  • Gavril L, Roșan A, Szamosközi S. The role of visual-spatial attention in reading development: a meta-analysis. Cogn Neuropsychol. 2021;38(6):387–407. doi:10.1080/02643294.2022.2043839
  • Lobier M, Dubois M, Valdois S. The role of visual processing speed in reading speed development. PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e58097. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0058097
  • Feuerstein R. The theory of structural modifiability. In: Presseisen B, editor. Learning and Thinking Styles: Classroom Interaction. National Education Association; 1990.
  • Bandura A. Self-efficacy. In: Ramachaudran VS, editor. Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. Vol. 4. Academic Press; 1994:71–81.
  • Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers; 1988.
  • Baumas V, Zebdi R, Julien-Sweerts S, et al. Patients and parent’s experience of multi-family therapy for anorexia nervosa: a pilot study. Front Psychol. 2021;12:584565. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.584565
  • Rodríguez-Naveiras E, Cadenas M, Borges Á, Valadez D. Educational responses to students with high abilities from the parental perspective. Front Psychol. 2019;10:1187. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01187
  • Biederman J, Faraone SV, Monuteaux MC, et al. How informative are parent reports of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms for assessing outcome in clinical trials of long-acting treatments? A pooled analysis of parents’ and teachers’ reports. Pediatrics. 2004;113:1667–1671. doi:10.1542/peds.113.6.1667
  • Moore AL, Carpenter DM, Ledbetter C, Miller TM. Clinician-delivered cognitive training for children with attention problems: transfer effects on cognitive and behavior from the ThinkRx randomized controlled trial. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2018;14:1671–1683. doi:10.2147/NDT.S165418
  • McArthur GM, Filardi N, Francis DA, Boyes ME, Badcock NS. Self-concept in poor readers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PeerJ. 2020;8:e8772. doi:10.7717/peerj.8772
  • Merisuo-Storm T, Soininen M. The interdependence between young children’ reading attitudes, reading skills, and self-esteem. J Educ Soc Res. 2014;4(2). doi:10.5901/jesr.2014.v4n2p122