References
- Ernst M, Niederer D, Werner AM, et al. Loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review with meta-analysis. American Psychologist. 2022;77(5):660–677. doi:10.1037/amp0001005
- Groarke JM, Berry E, Graham-Wisener L, McKenna-Plumley PE, McGlinchey E, Armour C. Loneliness in the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic: cross-sectional results from the COVID-19 psychological wellbeing study. PLoS One. 2020;15(9):e0239698. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0239698
- Varga TV, Bu F, Dissing AS, et al. Loneliness, worries, anxiety, and precautionary behaviours in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal analysis of 200,000 Western and Northern Europeans. Lancet Region Health Europe. 2021;2:100020. doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2020.100020
- Perlman D, Peplau L. Toward a social psychology of loneliness. In: Gilmour G, Duck S, editors. Personal Relationships in Disorder. London: Academic Press.; 1981:31–33.
- Wigfield A, Turner R, Alden S, Green M, Karania VK. Developing a new conceptual framework of meaningful interaction for understanding social isolation and loneliness. Soc Policy Soc. 2022;21(2):172–193. doi:10.1017/S147474642000055X
- Mental Health Foundation. Loneliness and mental health report; 2022. Available from: https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/our-work/research/loneliness-and-mental-health-report-uk. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Mushtaq R, Shoib S, Shah T, Mushtaq S. Relationship between loneliness, psychiatric disorders and physical health ? A review on the psychological aspects of loneliness. J Clin Diagn Res. 2014;8(9):WE01–4. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2014/10077.4828
- Office for National Statistics. Loneliness - what characteristics and circumstances are associated with feeling lonely?; 2018. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/articles/lonelinesswhatcharacteristicsandcircumstancesareassociatedwithfeelinglonely/2018-04-10. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Lasgaard M, Friis K, Shevlin M. “Where are all the lonely people?” A population-based study of high-risk groups across the life span. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2016;51(10):1373–1384. doi:10.1007/s00127-016-1279-3
- BBC. The anatomy of loneliness: who feels lonely? The results of the world’s largest loneliness study; 2018. Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/2yzhfv4DvqVp5nZyxBD8G23/who-feels-lonely-The-results-of-The-world-s-largest-loneliness-study. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Office for National Statistics. Children’s and young people’s experiences of loneliness; 2018. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/articles/childrensandyoungpeoplesexperiencesofloneliness/2018. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Qualter P, Hennessey A, Yang K, Chester KL, Klemera E, Brooks F. Prevalence and social inequality in youth loneliness in the UK. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(19):10420. doi:10.3390/ijerph181910420
- Harris RA, Qualter P, Robinson SJ. Loneliness trajectories from middle childhood to pre-adolescence: impact on perceived health and sleep disturbance. J Adolesc. 2013;36(6):1295–1304. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.12.009
- Heinrich LM, Gullone E. The clinical significance of loneliness: a literature review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2006;26(6):695–718. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002
- de Almeida IL, Rego L, Teixeira ACG JF, Moreira MR. Social isolation and its impact on child and adolescent development: a systematic review. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2021;40:e2020385. doi:10.1590/1984-0462/2022/40/2020385
- Loades ME, Chatburn E, Higson-Sweeney N, et al. Rapid systematic review: the impact of social isolation and loneliness on the mental health of children and adolescents in the context of COVID-19. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2020;59(11):1218–1239.e3. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009
- Saulle R, De Sario M, Bena A, et al. School closures and mental health, wellbeing and health behaviours among children and adolescents during the second COVID-19 wave: a systematic review of the literature. Epidemiol Prev. 2022;46(5–6):333–352. doi:10.19191/ep22.5-6.a542.089
- Chaabane S, Doraiswamy S, Chaabna K, Mamtani R, Cheema S. The impact of COVID-19 school closure on child and adolescent health: a rapid systematic review. Children. 2021;8(5). doi:10.3390/children8050415
- Farrell AH, Vitoroulis I, Eriksson M, Vaillancourt T. Loneliness and well-being in children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review. Children. 2023;10(2). doi:10.3390/children10020279
- Jamil A, Syed J, Kanwal S, et al. Loneliness and mental health related impacts of COVID-19: a narrative review. Int J Adolesc Med Health. 2023;35(1):21–30. doi:10.1515/ijamh-2022-0032
- Kauhanen L, Wan Mohd Yunus WMA, Lempinen L, et al. A systematic review of the mental health changes of children and young people before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2023;32(6):995–1013. doi:10.1007/s00787-022-02060-0
- Theberath M, Bauer D, Chen W, et al. Effects of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health of children and adolescents: a systematic review of survey studies. SAGE Open Med. 2022;10:20503121221086712. doi:10.1177/20503121221086712
- Windarwati HD, Lestari R, Supianto AA, et al. A narrative review into the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on senior high school adolescent mental health. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. 2022;35(3):206–217. doi:10.1111/jcap.12370
- Houghton S, Kyron M, Hunter SC, et al. Adolescents’ longitudinal trajectories of mental health and loneliness: the impact of COVID-19 school closures. J Adolesc. 2022;94(2):191–205. doi:10.1002/jad.12017
- Mental Health Foundation. About the “mental health in the pandemic” adolescent study; 2022. Available from: https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/our-work/research/about-mental-health-pandemic-adolescent-study. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Bu F, Steptoe A, Fancourt D. Loneliness during a strict lockdown: trajectories and predictors during the COVID-19 pandemic in 38,217 United Kingdom adults. Soc Sci Med. 2020;265:113521. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113521
- Mayerl H, Stolz E, Freidl W. Trajectories of loneliness, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic in Austria. Public Health. 2022;212:10–13. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2022.08.004
- Blankenburg J, Wekenborg MK, Reichert J, et al. Comparison of mental health outcomes in seropositive and seronegative adolescents during the COVID19 pandemic. Sci Rep. 2022;12(1):2246. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-06166-y
- Stephenson T, Shafran R, De Stavola B, et al. Long COVID and the mental and physical health of children and young people: national matched cohort study protocol (the CLoCk study). BMJ Open. 2021;11(8):e052838. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-052838
- Institute for Government. Timeline of UK government coronavirus lockdowns and measures; 2020. Available from: https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/2022-12/timeline-coronavirus-lockdown-december-2021.pdf. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- UK Health Security Agency. Cases in England. 2023. Available from: https://coronavirus.data.gov.uk/details/cases?areaType=nation&areaName=England. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Office for National Statistics. Recommended National Indicators of Loneliness; 2018. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/compendium/nationalmeasurementofloneliness/2018/recommendednationalindicatorsofloneliness. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Stephenson T, Allin B, Nugawela MD, et al. Long COVID (post-COVID-19 condition) in children: a modified Delphi process. Arch Dis Child. 2022;107(7):674–680. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2021-323624
- World Health Organisation. A clinical case definition for post COVID-19 condition in children and adolescents by expert consensus. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-Post-COVID-19-condition-CA-Clinical-case-definition-2023-1. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- van de Schoot R, Sijbrandij M, Winter SD, Depaoli S, Vermunt JK. The GRoLTS-checklist: guidelines for reporting on latent trajectory studies. Struct Equ Modeling. 2017;24(3):451–467. doi:10.1080/10705511.2016.1247646
- Proust-Lima C, Philipps V, Liquet B. Estimation of extended mixed models using latent classes and latent processes: the R package lcmm. J Stat Softw. 2017;78(2). doi:10.18637/jss.v078.i02
- Croissant Y. Estimation of random utility models in R: the mlogit package. J Stat Softw. 2020;95(11). doi:10.18637/jss.v095.i11
- Zeileis A, Köll S, Graham N. Various versatile variances: an object-oriented implementation of clustered covariances in R. J Stat Softw. 2020;95(1). doi:10.18637/jss.v095.i01
- R Core Team. R: a language and environment for statistical computing. 2021.
- Lumley T. Analysis of complex survey samples. J Stat Softw. 2004;9(8). doi:10.18637/jss.v009.i08
- Clark S, Muthén B, Clark S, Muthén B. Relating latent class analysis results to variables not included in the analysis. 2009. Available from: https://www.statmodel.com/download/relatinglca.pdf. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J R Stat Soc. 1995;57(1):289–300. doi:10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x
- Vandenbroucke JP, von Elm E, Altman DG, et al. Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE). Epidemiology. 2007;18(6):805–835. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181577511
- Kung CSJ, Kunz JS, Shields MA. COVID-19 lockdowns and changes in loneliness among young people in the U.K. Soc Sci Med. 2023;320:115692. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115692
- Bu F, Steptoe A, Fancourt D. Who is lonely in lockdown? Cross-cohort analyses of predictors of loneliness before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Public Health. 2020;186:31–34. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2020.06.036
- Hu Y, Gutman LM. The trajectory of loneliness in UK young adults during the summer to winter months of COVID-19. Psychiatry Res. 2021;303:114064. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114064
- Kung CSJ, Pudney SE, Shields MA. Economic gradients in loneliness, social isolation and social support: evidence from the UK Biobank. Soc Sci Med. 2022;306:115122. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115122
- Lim MH, Eres R, Vasan S. Understanding loneliness in the twenty-first century: an update on correlates, risk factors, and potential solutions. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2020;55(7):793–810. doi:10.1007/s00127-020-01889-7
- Eisenberger NI, Moieni M, Inagaki TK, Muscatell KA, Irwin MR. In sickness and in health: the co-regulation of inflammation and social behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2017;42(1):242–253. doi:10.1038/npp.2016.141
- Cacioppo JT, Hawkley LC, Crawford LE, et al. Loneliness and health: potential mechanisms. Psychosom Med. 2002;64(3):407–417. doi:10.1097/00006842-200205000-00005
- Baarck J, Kovacic M. The Relationship Between Loneliness and Health. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union; 2022. doi:10.2760/90915
- Cowley LE, Hodgson K, Song J, et al. Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of clinically extremely vulnerable children and children living with clinically extremely vulnerable people in Wales: a data linkage study. BMJ open. 2023;13(6):e067882.
- Griffiths H, O’Connor K, Phillips B, et al. The child & family clinical psychology review.; 2020. Available from: https://cms.bps.org.uk/sites/default/files/2022-09/Meeting%20the%20psychological%20needs%20of%20children%20in%20shielding%20families.pdf. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Chapter 6: Testing. Department of health & social care. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/technical-report-on-The-covid-19-pandemic-in-The-uk/chapter-6-testing. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Rojas N, Stavola B, Norris T, et al. Developing survey weights to ensure representativeness in a national, matched cohort study: results from the Children and young people with Long Covid (CLoCk) study. 2023. doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2912362/v1
- Pinto Pereira SM, Shafran R, Nugawela MD, et al. Natural course of health and well-being in non-hospitalised children and young people after testing for SARS-CoV-2: a prospective follow-up study over 12 months. Lancet Region Health Europe. 2023;25:100554. doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2022.100554
- Kelly S. Individual socioeconomic status is important but hard to measure. BMJ. 2021;n174. doi:10.1136/bmj.n174
- Ministry of Housing C& LG. English indices of deprivation; 2019. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/english-indices-of-deprivation-2019. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Valtorta NK, Kanaan M, Gilbody S, Ronzi S, Hanratty B. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies. Heart. 2016;102(13):1009–1016. doi:10.1136/heartjnl-2015-308790
- Berkman L, Krishna A. Social Network Epidemiology. In: Social Epidemiology. Oxford University Press; 2014.
- Hawkley LC, Cacioppo JT. Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Ann Behav Med. 2010;40(2):218–227. doi:10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8
- Cole SW, Hawkley LC, Arevalo JM, Sung CY, Rose RM, Cacioppo JT. Social regulation of gene expression in human leukocytes. Genome Biol. 2007;8(9):R189. doi:10.1186/gb-2007-8-9-r189
- Hackett RA, Hamer M, Endrighi R, Brydon L, Steptoe A. Loneliness and stress-related inflammatory and neuroendocrine responses in older men and women. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2012;37(11):1801–1809. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.016
- Pourriyahi H, Yazdanpanah N, Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Loneliness: an immunometabolic syndrome. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(22):12162. doi:10.3390/ijerph182212162
- Lăzăroiu G, Adams C. Viral panic and contagious fear in scary times: the proliferation of COVID-19 misinformation and fake news. Anal Metaphys. 2020;19:80–86. doi:10.22381/AM1920209
- Lăzăroiu G, Horák J, Valaskova K. Scaring ourselves to death in the time of COVID-19: pandemic awareness, virus anxiety, and contagious fear. Linguist Philos Investig. 2020;19. doi:10.22381/LPI1920208
- The Jo Cox Foundation. The Jo Cox Loneliness Commission. 2019. Available from: https://www.jocoxfoundation.org/loneliness_commission. Accessed May 11, 2023.
- Department for Digital Culture Media and Sport. Policy Paper: tackling loneliness annual report February 2022: the third year; 2022. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/loneliness-annual-report-The-third-year/tackling-loneliness-annual-report-february-2022-The-third-year. Accessed May 11, 2023.