Biomarkers in the prediction and management of acute coronary syndromes: current perspectives

References

• Biomarker Definitions Working Group. Biomarker and surrogate endpoints: preferred definitions and conceptual framework. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2001;69:89–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grech ED, Ramsdale DR. Acute coronary syndrome: unstable angina and non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction. BMJ. 2003;326:1259–1261.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thygesen K, Alpert JS, Jaffe AS, et al. Third universal definition of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60:1581–1598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickersin K, Scherer R, Lefebvre C. Identifying relevant studies for systematic reviews. BMJ. 1994;309:1286–1291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haynes RB, McKibbon KA, Wilczynski NL, Walter SD, Werre SR; HEDGES Team. Optimal search strategies for retrieving scientifically strong studies of treatment from Medline: analytical survey. BMJ. 2005;330:1179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkins D, Best D, Briss PA, et al; Grade Working Group. Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ. 2004;328:1490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daubert MA, Jeremias A. The utility of troponin measurement to detect myocardial infarction: review of the current findings. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2010;6:691–699.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chapelle JP. Cardiac troponin I and troponin T: recent players in the field of myocardial markers. Clin Chem Lab Med. 1999;37:11–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldous SJ, Richards M, Cullen L, Troughton R, Than M. Diagnostic and prognostic utility of early measurement with high-sensitivity troponin T assay in patients presenting with chest pain. CMAJ. 2012;184:E260–E268.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamm CW, Goldmann BU, Heeschen C, Kreymann G, Berger J, Meinertz T. Emergency room triage of patients with acute chest pain by means of rapid testing for cardiac troponin T or troponin I. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1648–1653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apple FS, Collinson PO; IFCC Task Force on Clinical Applications of Cardiac Biomarkers. Analytical characteristics of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin assays. Clin Chem. 2012;58:54–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omland T, de Lemos JA, Sabatine MS, et al; Prevention of Events with Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibition (PEACE) Trial Investigators. A sensitive cardiac troponin T assay in stable coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2538–2547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ndrepepa G, Braun S, Mehilli J, et al. Prognostic value of sensitive troponin T in patients with stable and unstable angina and undetectable conventional troponin. Am Heart J. 2011;161:68–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laufer EM, Mingels AM, Winkens MH, et al. The extent of coronary atherosclerosis is associated with increasing circulating levels of high sensitive cardiac troponin T. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010;30:1269–1275.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ndrepepa G, Braun S, Schulz S, Mehilli J, Schömig A, Kastrati A. High-sensitivity troponin T level and angiographic severity of coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 2011;108:639–643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu AH, Jaffe AS. The clinical need for high-sensitivity cardiac troponin assays for acute coronary syndromes and the role for serial testing. Am Heart J. 2008;155:208–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apple FS, Saenger AK. The state of cardiac troponin assays: looking bright and moving in the right direction. Clin Chem. 2013;59: 1014–1016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covino M, Simeoni B, Montalto M, et al. Reduced performance of troponin T for acute coronary syndromes diagnosis in the elderly and very elderly patients: a retrospective study of 2688 patients. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2012;16 Suppl 1:8–15.
   Google Scholar
• Gupta S, Alagona P Jr. Troponins: not always a myocardial infarction. Am J Med. 2008;121:e25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thygesen K, Mair J, Giannitsis E, et al; Study Group on Biomarkers in Cardiology of ESC Working Group on Acute Cardiac Care. How to use high-sensitivity cardiac troponins in acute cardiac care. Eur Heart J. 2012;33:2252–2257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patil H, Vaidya O, Bogart D. A review of causes and systemic approach to cardiac troponin elevation. Clin Cardiol. 2011;34:723–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melanson SE, Conrad MJ, Mosammaparast N, Jarolim P. Implementation of a highly sensitive cardiac troponin I assay: test volumes, positivity rates and interpretation of results. Clin Chim Acta. 2008;395:57–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Januzzi JL Jr, Bamberg F, Lee H, et al. High sensitivity troponin T concentrations in acute chest pain patients evaluated with cardiac computed tomography. Circulation. 2010;121:1227–1234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NACB Writing Group, Wu AH, Jaffe AS, Apple FS, et al; NACB Committee, Cannon CP, Storrow AB. National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: use of cardiac troponin and B-type natriuretic peptide or N-terminal proB-type natriuretic peptide for etiologies other than acute coronary syndromes and heart failure. Clin Chem. 2007;53:2086–2096.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichlin T, Irfan A, Twerenbold R, et al. Utility of absolute and relative changes in cardiac troponin concentrations in the early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2011;124:136–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendrew JC. Myoglobin and the structure of proteins. Science. 1963;139:1259–1266.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tucker JF, Collins RA, Anderson AJ, et al. Early diagnostic efficiency of cardiac troponin I and troponin T for acute myocardial infarction. Acad Emerg Med. 1997;4:13–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kontos MC, Garg R, Anderson FP, et al. Ability of myoglobin to predict mortality in patients admitted for exclusion of myocardial infarction. Am J Emerg Med. 2007;25:873–879.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamm CW, Bassand JP, Agewall S, et al; ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines. ESC Guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation: the task force for the management of acute coronary syndromes (ACS) in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J. 2011;32:2999–3054.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fesmire FM. A rapid protocol to identify and exclude acute myocardial infarction: continuous 12-lead ECG monitoring with 2-hour delta CK-MB. Am J Emerg Med. 2000;18:698–702.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fesmire FM, Christenson RH, Fody EP, Feintuch TA. Delta creatine kinase-MB outperforms myoglobin at two hours during the emergency department identification and exclusion of troponin positive non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes. Ann Emerg Med. 2004;44:12–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fesmire FM, Percy RF, Bardoner JB, Wharton DR, Calhoun FB. Serial creatinine kinase (CK) MB testing during the emergency department evaluation of chest pain: utility of a 2-hour delta CK-MB of +1.6 ng/mL. Am Heart J. 1998;136:237–244.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capellan O, Hollander JE, Pollack C Jr, et al. Prospective evaluation of emergency department patients with potential coronary syndromes using initial absolute CK-MB vs CK-MB relative index. J Emerg Med. 2003;24:361–367.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polanczyk CA, Johnson PA, Cook EF, Lee TH. Proposed strategy for utilization of creatine kinase-MB and troponin I in the evaluation of acute chest pain. Am J Cardiol. 1999;83:1175–1179.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamm CW, Bassand JP, Agewall S, et al. ESC Guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation: the task force for the management of acute coronary syndromes (ACS) in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J. 2011;32:2999–3054.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor J. 2012 ESC guidelines on acute myocardial infarction (STEMI). Eur Heart J. 2012;33:2501–2502.
   Google Scholar
• Hui X, Lam KS, Vanhoutte PM, Xu A. Adiponectin and cardiovascular health: an update. Br J Pharmacol. 2012;165:574–590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lara-Castro C, Fu Y, Chung BH, Garvey WT. Adiponectin and the metabolic syndrome: mechanisms mediating risk for metabolic and cardiovascular disease. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2007;18:263–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kojima S, Funahashi T, Otsuka F, et al. Future adverse cardiac events can be predicted by persistently low plasma adiponectin concentrations in men and marked reductions of adiponectin in women after acute myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis. 2007;194:204–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ai M, Otokozawa S, Asztalos BF, et al. Adiponectin: an independent risk factor for coronary heart disease in men in the Framingham offspring Study. Atherosclerosis. 2011;217:543–548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindberg S, Mogelvang R, Pedersen SH, et al. Relation of serum adiponectin levels to number of traditional atherosclerotic risk factors and all-cause mortality and major adverse cardiovascular events (from the Copenhagen City Heart Study). Am J Cardiol. 2013;111:1139–1145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawlor DA, Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S, Thompson C, Sattar N. Plasma adiponectin levels are associated with insulin resistance, but do not predict future risk of coronary heart disease in women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:5677–5683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanaya AM, Wassel Fyr C, Vittinghoff E, et al; Health ABC Study. Serum adiponectin and coronary heart disease risk in older black and white Americans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:5044–5050.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson SR, Sabatine MS, Wiviott SD, et al. Assessment of adiponectin and the risk of recurrent cardiovascular events in patients presenting with an acute coronary syndrome: observations from the PRavastatin Or atorVastatin Evaluation and Infection Trial-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22 (PROVE IT-TIMI 22). Am Heart J. 2011;161:1147–1155.
   Google Scholar
• Beatty AL, Zhang MH, Ku IA, Na B, Schiller NB, Whooley MA. Adiponectin is associated with increased mortality and heart failure in patients with stable ischemic heart disease: data from the Heart and Soul Study. Atherosclerosis. 2012;220:587–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindberg S, Pedersen SH, Møgelvang R, et al. Usefulness of adiponectin as a predictor of all cause mortality in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Am J Cardiol. 2012;109:492–496.
   Google Scholar
• Gardener H, Goldberg R, Mendez AJ, et al. Adiponectin and risk of vascular events in the Northern Manhattan study. Atherosclerosis. 2013;226:483–489.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staub D, Nusbaumer C, Zellweger MJ, et al. Use of B-type natriuretic peptide in the detection of myocardial ischemia. Am Heart J. 2006;151: 1223–1230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadir MA, Witham MD, Szwejkowski BR, Struthers AD. Meta-analysis of B-type natriuretic peptide–s ability to identify stress induced myocardial ischemia. Am J Cardiol. 2011;107:662–667.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morita E, Yasue H, Yoshimura M, et al. Increased plasma levels of brain natriuretic peptide in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1993;88:82–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki S, Yoshimura M, Nakayama M, et al. Plasma level of B-type natriuretic peptide as a prognostic marker after acute myocardial infarction: a long-term follow-up analysis. Circulation. 2004;110:1387–1391.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kwan G, Isakson SR, Beede J, Clopton P, Maisel AS, Fitzgerald RL. Short-term serial sampling of natriuretic peptides in patients presenting with chest pain. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:1186–1192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Talwar S, Squire IB, Downie PF, et al. Profile of plasma N-terminal proBNP following acute myocardial infarction; correlation with left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Eur Heart J. 2000;21:1514–1521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassan R, Tura BR, Maisel AS. B-type natriuretic peptide: a strong predictor of early and late mortality in patients with acute chest pain without ST-segment elevation in the emergency department. Coron Artery Dis. 2009;20:143–149.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coppola G, Corrado E, Mulè MC, et al. Analysis of N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Coron Artery Dis. 2009;20:225–229.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspromonte N, Di Fusco SA, Latini R, et al. Natriuretic peptides in acute chest pain and acute coronary syndrome: from pathophysiology to clinical and prognostic applications. Coron Artery Dis. 2013;24:33–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burri E, Hochholzer K, Arenja N, et al. B-type natriuretic peptide in the evaluation and management of dyspnea in primary care. J Intern Med. 2012;272:504–513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu Z, Han Z, Huang Y, Sun Y, Li B, Deng A. Diagnostic power of the mid-regional pro-atrial natriuretic peptide for heart failure patients with dyspnea: a meta-analysis. Clin Biochem. 2012;45:1634–1639.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sukhova GK, Shi GP, Simon DI, Chapman HA, Libby P. Expression of the elastolytic cathepsins S and K in human atheroma and regulation of their production in smooth muscle cells. J Clin Invest. 1998;102: 576–583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalia KK, Mashru MR, Shah VK, Soneji SL, Payannavar S. Levels of cathepsins in acute myocardial infarction. Indian Heart J. 2012;64: 290–294.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mirzaii-Dizgah I, Riahi E. Serum and saliva levels of cathepsin L in patients with acute coronary syndrome. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2011;12:114–119.
   Google Scholar
• Chen H, Wang J, Xiang MX, et al. Cathepsin S-mediated fibroblast trans-differentiation contributes to left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction. Cardiovasc Res. 2013;100:84–94.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu A, Gao X, Zhang Q, Cui L. Cathepsin B inhibition attenuates cardiac dysfunction and remodeling following myocardial infarction by inhibiting the NLRP3 pathway. Mol Med Rep. 2013;8:361–366.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heeschen C, Dimmeler S, Hamm CW, et al; CAPTURE Study Investigators. Soluble CD40 ligand in acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:1104–1111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tousoulis D, Androulakis E, Papageorgiou N, et al. From atherosclerosis to acute coronary syndromes: the role of soluble CD40 ligand. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2010;20:153–164.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varo N, de Lemos JA, Libby P, et al. Soluble CD40L: risk prediction after acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2003;108:1049–1052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garlichs CD, Eskafi S, Raaz D, et al. Patients with acute coronary syndromes express enhanced CD40 ligand/CD154 on platelets. Heart. 2001;86:649–655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santilli F, Davì G, Consoli A, et al. Thromboxane-dependent CD40 ligand release in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47:391–397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desideri G, Ferri C. Effects of obesity and weight loss on soluble CD40L levels. JAMA. 2003;289:1781–1782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cipollone F, Mezzetti A, Porreca E, et al. Association between enhanced soluble CD40L and prothrombotic state in hypercholesterolemia: effects of statin therapy. Circulation. 2002;106:399–402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plaikner M, Peer A, Falkensammer G, et al. Lack of association of soluble CD40 ligand with the presence of acute myocardial infarction or ischemic stroke in the emergency department. Clin Chem. 2009;55:175–178.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jefferis BJ, Whincup PH, Welsh P, et al. Prospective study of circulating soluble CD40 ligand concentrations and the incidence of cardiovascular disease in a nested prospective case-control study of older men and women. J Thromb Haemost. 2011;9:1452–1459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrow DA, Sabatine MS, Brennan ML, et al. Concurrent evaluation of novel cardiac biomarkers in acute coronary syndrome: myeloperoxidase and soluble CD40 ligand and the risk of recurrent ischaemic events in TACTICS-TIMI 18. Eur Heart J. 2008;29:1096–1102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abu el-Makrem MA, Mahmoud YZ, Sayed D, et al. The role of platelets CD40 ligand (CD154) in acute coronary syndromes. Thromb Res. 2009;124:683–688.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaski JC, Fernández-Bergés DJ, Consuegra-Sánchez L, et al. A comparative study of biomarkers for risk prediction in acute coronary syndrome – results of the SIESTA (Systemic Inflammation Evaluation in non-ST-elevation Acute coronary syndrome) study. Atherosclerosis. 2010;212:636–643.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desideri G, Panichi V, Paoletti S, et al; RISCAVID investigators. Soluble CD40 ligand is predictive of combined cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients on haemodialysis at a relatively short-term follow-up. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2011;26:2983–2988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu YL, Voors AA, Zijlstra F, et al. Comparison of the temporal release pattern of copeptin with conventional biomarkers in acute myocardial infarction. Clin Res Cardiol. 2011;100:1069–1076.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giavarina D, Carta M, Fortunato A, Wratten ML, Hartmann O, Soffiati G. Copeptin and high sensitive troponin for a rapid rule out of acute myocardial infarction? Clin Lab. 2011;57:725–730.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan SQ, Dhillon OS, O–Brien RJ, et al. C-terminal provasopressin (copeptin) as a novel and prognostic marker in acute myocardial infarction: Leicester Acute Myocardial Infarction Peptide (LAMP) study. Circulation. 2007;115:2103–2110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morawiec B, Kawecki D. Copeptin: a new marker in cardiology. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown). 2013;14:19–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folli C, Consonni D, Spessot M, et al. Diagnostic role of copeptin in patients presenting with chest pain in the emergency room. Eur J Intern Med. 2013;24:189–193.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray P, Charpentier S, Chenevier-Gobeaux C, et al. Combined copeptin and troponin to rule out myocardial infarction in patients with chest pain and a history of coronary artery disease. Am J Emerg Med. 2012;30:440–448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charpentier S, Lepage B, Maupas-Schwalm F, et al. Copeptin improves the diagnostic performance of sensitive troponin I-Ultra but cannot rapidly rule out non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction at presentation to an emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2013;61: 549.e1–558.e1.
   Google Scholar
• Sánchez M, Llorens P, Herrero P, Martín-Sanchez FJ, Piñera P, Miró O; on behalf of COPEP study investigators. The utility of copeptin in the emergency department as a predictor of adverse outcomes in non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome: the COPED-PAO study. Emerg Med J. January 31, 2013. [Epub ahead of print.]
   Google Scholar
• Satoh K, Fukumoto Y, Shimokawa H. Rho-kinase: important new therapeutic target in cardiovascular diseases. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2011;301:H287–H296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan J, Zang X, Chen R, et al. The clinical implications of increased cyclophilin A levels in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Clin Chim Acta. 2012;413:691–695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satoh K, Fukumoto Y, Sugimura K, et al. Plasma cyclophilin A is a novel biomarker for coronary artery disease. Circ J. 2013;77: 447–455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilic T, Oner G, Ural E, et al. Comparison of the long-term prognostic value of cystatin C to other indicators of renal function, markers of inflammation and systolic dysfunction among patients with acute coronary syndrome. Atherosclerosis. 2009;207:552–558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akerblom Å, Wallentin L, Siegbahn A, et al. Cystatin C and estimated glomerular filtration rate as predictors for adverse outcome in patients with ST-elevation and non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes: results from the Platelet Inhibition and Patient Outcomes study. Clin Chem. 2012;58:190–199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ge C, Ren F, Lu S, Ji F, Chen X, Wu X. Clinical prognostic significance of plasma cystatin C levels among patients with acute coronary syndrome. Clin Cardiol. 2009;32:644–648.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Windhausen F, Hirsch A, Fischer J, et al; Invasive versus Conservative Treatment in Unstable Coronary Syndromes (ICTUS) Investigators. Cystatin C for enhancement of risk stratification in non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome patients with an increased troponin T. Clin Chem. 2009;55:1118–1125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eggers KM, Dellborg M, Oldgren J, Swahn E, Venge P, Lindahl B. Risk prediction in chest pain patients by biochemical markers including estimates of renal function. Int J Cardiol. 2008;128:207–213.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva D, Cortez-Dias N, Jorge C, et al. Cystatin C as prognostic biomarker in ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2012;109:1431–1438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ichimoto E, Jo K, Kobayashi Y, et al. Prognostic significance of cystatin C in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Circ J. 2009;73:1669–1673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ix JH, Shlipak MG, Chertow GM, Whooley MA. Association of cystatin C with mortality, cardiovascular events, and incident heart failure among persons with coronary heart disease: data from the Heart and Soul Study. Circulation. 2007;115:173–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ristiniemi N, Lund J, Tertti R, et al. Cystatin C as a predictor of all-cause mortality and myocardial infarction in patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome. Clin Biochem. 2012;45: 535–540.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fouad M, Boraie M. Cystatin C as an early marker of acute kidney injury and predictor of mortality in the intensive care unit after acute myocardial infarction. Arab J Nephrol Transplant. 2013;6:21–26.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kakoti A, Goswami P. Heart type fatty acid binding protein: structure, function and biosensing applications for early detection of myocardial infarction. Biosens Bioelectron. 2013;43:400–411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storch J, Thumser AE. Tissue-specific functions in the fatty acid-binding protein family. J Biol Chem. 2010;285:32679–32683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka T, Hirota Y, Sohmiya K, Nishimura S, Kawamura K. Serum and urinary human heart fatty acid-binding protein in acute myocardial infarction. Clin Biochem. 1991;24:195–1201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleine AH, Glatz JF, Van Nieuwenhoven FA, Van der Vusse GJ. Release of heart fatty acid-binding protein into plasma after acute myocardial infarction in man. Mol Cell Biochem. 1992;116: 155–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishii J, Wang J, Naruse H, et al. Serum concentrations of myoglobin vs human heart-type cytoplasmic fatty acid binding protein in early detection of acute myocardial infarction. Clin Chem. 1997;43: 1372–1378.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagahara D, Nakata T, Hashimoto A, et al. Early positive biomarker in relation to myocardial necrosis and impaired fatty acid metabolism in patients presenting with acute chest pain at an emergency room. Circ J. 2006;70:419–425.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelsers MM, Hermens WT, Glatz JF. Fatty acid-binding proteins as plasma markers of tissue injury. Clin Chim Acta. 2005;352:15–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim KS, Lee HJ, Kim K, et al. Heart-type fatty acid binding protein as an adjunct to cardiac troponin-I for the diagnosis of myocardial infarction. J Korean Med Sci. 2011;26:47–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilcullen N, Viswanathan K, Das R, et al; EMMACE-2 Investigators. Heart-type fatty acid-binding protein predicts long-term mortality after acute coronary syndrome and identifies high-risk patients across the range of troponin values.. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50:2061–2067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruins Slot MH, Reitsma JB, Rutten FH, Hoes AW, van der Heijden GJ. Heart-type fatty acid-binding protein in the early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Heart. 2010;96:1957–1963.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haltern G, Peiniger S, Bufe A, Reiss G, Gülker H, Scheffold T. Comparison of usefulness of heart-type fatty acid binding protein versus cardiac troponin T for diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2010;105:1–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurz K, Giannitsis E, Becker M, Hess G, Zdunek D, Katus HA. Comparison of the new high sensitive cardiac troponin T with myoglobin, h-FABP and cTnT for early identification of myocardial necrosis in the acute coronary syndrome. Clin Res Cardiol. 2011;100: 209–215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippi G, Mattiuzzi C, Cervellin G. Critical review and meta-analysis on the combination of heart-type fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP) and troponin for early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. Clin Biochem. 2013;46:26–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruff CT, Bonaca MP, Kosowsky JM, et al. Evaluation of the diagnostic performance of heart-type fatty acid binding protein in the BWH-TIMI ED chest pain study. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2013;36:361–367.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiter M, Twerenbold R, Reichlin T, et al. Heart-type fatty acid-binding protein in the early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. Heart. 2013;99:708–714.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy D, Quiles J, Gaze DC, Collinson P, Kaski JC, Baxter GF. Role of reactive oxygen species on the formation of the novel diagnostic marker ischaemia modified albumin. Heart. 2006;92:113–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apple FS, Wu AH, Mair J, et al. Future biomarkers for detection of ischemia and risk stratification in acute coronary syndrome. Clin Chem. 2005;51:810–824.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee YW, Kim HJ, Cho YH, et al. Application of albumin-adjusted ischemia modified albumin index as an early screening marker for acute coronary syndromes. Chim Clin Acta. 2007;152:253–262.
   Google Scholar
• Zhong Y, Wang N, Xu H, Hou X, Xu P, Zhou Z. Ischemia-modified albumin in stable coronary atherosclerotic heart disease: clinical diagnosis and risk stratification. Coron Artery Dis. 2012;23:538–541.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baysal T, Alp H, Koç N, Atabek ME, Eklioğlu BS, Karaarslan S. Serum ischemia-modified albumin level and its association with cardiovascular risk factors in obese children and adolescents. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2012;25:935–944.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peacock F, Morris DL, Anwaruddin S, et al. Meta-analysis of ischemia-modified albumin to rule out acute coronary syndromes in the emergency department. Am Heart J. 2006;152:253–262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charpentier S, Ducassé JL, Cournot M, et al. Clinical assessment of ischemia-modified albumin and heart fatty acid-binding protein in the early diagnosis of non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2010;17:27–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toker A, Aribas A, Yerlikaya FH, Tasyurek E, Akbuga K. Serum and saliva levels of ischemia-modified albumin in patients with acute myocardial infarction. J Clin Lab Anal. 2013;27:99–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence JB, Oxvig C, Overgaard MT, et al. The insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-dependent IGF binding protein-4 protease secreted by human fibroblasts is pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999;96:3149–3153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayes-Genis A, Conover CA, Overgaard MT, et al. Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A as a marker of acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1022–1029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wlazeł RN, Rysz J, Paradowski M. Examination of serum pregnancy-associated plasma protein A clinical value in acute coronary syndrome prediction and monitoring. Arch Med Sci. 2013;9: 14–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonaca MP, Scirica BM, Sabatine MS, et al. Prospective evaluation of pregnancy-associated plasma protein-a and outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60: 332–338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gururajan P, Gurumurthy P, Nayar P, et al. Pregnancy associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A) as an early marker for the diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome. Indian Heart J. 2012;64:141–145.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Qin QP, Wittfooth S, Pettersson K. Measurement and clinical significance of circulating PAPP-A in ACS patients. Clin Chim Acta. 2007;380:59–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin QP, Laitinen P, Majamaa-Voltti K, Eriksson S, Kumpula EK, Pettersson K. Release patterns of pregnancy associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Scand Cardiovasc J. 2002;36:358–361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long M, Chen AH, Deng MF, Lai WW, Liang YH. [Meta-analysis on the prognostic value of pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A in acute coronary syndrome]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi. 2013;34:279–284. Chinese.
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong EJ, Morrow DA, Sabatine MS. Inflammatory biomarkers in acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2006;113:e72–e75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatmi ZN, Saeid AK, Broumand MA, et al. Multiple inflammatory prognostic factors in acute coronary syndromes: a prospective inception cohort study. Acta Med Iran. 2010;48:51–57.
   Google Scholar
• Kołtowski L, Filipiak KJ, Rdzanek A, Stępień V, Tarchalska-Kryńska B, Opolski G. IgG, IgM and inflammatory markers serum concentration in patients with acute coronary syndrome: a pilot study. Kardiol Pol. 2012;70:1023–1028.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eggers KM, Dellborg M, Johnston N, et al. Myeloperoxidase is not useful for the early assessment of patients with chest pain. Clin Biochem. 2010;43:240–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makrygiannis SS, Ampartzidou OS, Zairis MN, et al. Prognostic usefulness of serial C-reactive protein measurements in ST-elevation acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2013;111:26–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyao Y, Yasue H, Ogawa H, et al. Elevated plasma interleukin-6 levels in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1993;126:1299–1304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yayan J. Emerging families of biomarkers for coronary artery disease: inflammatory mediators. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2013;9: 435–456.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rashidinejad H, Hosseini SM, Moazenzadeh M, et al. Relationship between serum level of high-sensitive C-reactive protein and extension of myocardial involvement in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Rom J Intern Med. 2012;50:211–215.
   Google Scholar
• Dekker MS, Mosterd A, van ‘t Hof AW, Hoes AW. Novel biochemical markers in suspected acute coronary syndrome: systematic review and critical appraisal. Heart. 2010;96:1001–1010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [No authors listed]. Myocardial infarction redefined – a consensus document of The Joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the redefinition of myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J. 2000;21:1502–1513.
   Google Scholar
• Lin S, Yokoyama H, Rac VE, Brooks SC. Novel biomarkers in diagnosing cardiac ischemia in the emergency department: a systematic review. Resuscitation. 2012;83:684–691.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koehler J, Flarity K, Hertner G, et al. Effect of troponin I point-of-care testing on emergency department throughput measures and staff satisfaction. Adv Emerg Nurs J. 2013;35:270–277.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Loewenstein D, Stake C, Cichon M. Assessment of using fingerstick blood sample with i-STAT point-of-care device for cardiac troponin I assay. Am J Emerg Med. 2013;31:1236–1239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar