1,450
Views
11
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

The effect of preterm birth on adiposity and metabolic pathways and the implications for later life

, , , &
Pages 275-288 | Published online: 18 Jan 2017

Bibliography

  • Beck S, Wojdyla D, Say L et al. The worldwide incidence of preterm birth: a systematic review of maternal mortality and morbidity. Bull. World Health Organ. 88, 31–38 (2010)
  • Steer P. The epidemiology of preterm labour. BJOG 112, S1–S3 (2005)
  • McDonald SD, Han Z, Mulla S et al. Overweight and obesity in mothers and risk of preterm birth and low birth weight infants: systematic review and meta-analyses. BMJ 341, c3428 (2010)
  • Han Z, Lutsiv O, Mulla S et al. Low gestational weight gain and the risk of preterm birth and low birthweight: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 90, 935–954 (2011)
  • Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Sutton PD et al. Births: final data for 2008. Natl Vital Stat. Rep. 59, 3–71 (2010)
  • McDonald SD, Han Z, Mulla S et al. Preterm birth and low birth weight among in vitro fertilization twins: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 148, 105–113 (2010)
  • Goldenberg RL. The management of preterm labor. Obstet. Gynecol. 100, 1020–1037 (2002)
  • Saigal S, Doyle LW. An overview of mortality and sequelae of preterm birth from infancy to adulthood. Lancet 37, 261–269 (2008)
  • Hack M, Taylor HG, Schluchter M et al. Behavioral outcomes of extremely low birth weight children at age 8 years. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 30, 122–130 (2009)
  • de Jong F, Monuteaux MC, van Elburg RM et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of preterm birth and later systolic blood pressure. Hypertension 59, 226–234 (2012). nn Detailed meta-analysis showing that preterm birth is associated with a small increase in blood pressure in adulthood
  • Hovi P, Andersson S, Eriksson JG et al. Glucose regulation in young adults with very low birth weight. N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 2053–2063 (2007)
  • Crump C, Sundquist K, Winkleby MA, Sieh W, Sundquist J. Gestational age at birth and risk of testicular cancer. Int. J. Cancer 131(2), 446–451 (2012)
  • Hales CN, Barker DJ, Clark PM et al. Fetal and infant growth and impaired glucose tolerance at age 64. BMJ 303, 1019–1022 (1991)
  • Barker DJ. Fetal growth and adult disease. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 99, 275–276 (1992)
  • Barker DJ, Fall CH. Fetal and infant origins of cardiovascular disease. Arch. Dis. Child. 68, 797–799 (1993)
  • Barker DJ. The long-term outcome of retarded fetal growth. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 40, 853–863 (1997)
  • Leon DA, Lithell HO, Vagero D et al. Reduced fetal growth rate and increased risk of death from ischaemic heart disease: cohort study of 15,000 Swedish men and women born 1915–1929. BMJ 317, 241–245 (1998)
  • Newsome CA, Shiell AW, Fall CH et al. Is birth weight related to later glucose and insulin metabolism? – a systematic review. Diabet. Med. 20, 339–348 (2003)
  • Gillman MW, Rich-Edwards JW. The fetal origin of adult disease: from sceptic to convert. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 14, 192–193 (2000)
  • Thureen PJ. The neonatologist's dilemma: catch-up growth or beneficial undernutrition in very low birth weight infants – what are optimal growth rates? J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 45(Suppl. 3), S152–S154 (2007)
  • Fanaroff AA, Hack M, Walsh MC. The NICHD neonatal research network: changes in practice and outcomes during the first 15 years. Semin. Perinatol. 27, 281–287 (2003)
  • Ong KK. Catch-up growth in small for gestational age babies: good or bad? Curr. Opin Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 4, 30–34 (2007)
  • Law CM, Shiell AW, Newsome CA et al. Fetal, infant, and childhood growth and adult blood pressure: a longitudinal study from birth to 22 years of age. Circulation 105, 1088–1092 (2002)
  • Ong KK, Ahmed ML, Emmett PM et al. Association between postnatal catch-up growth and obesity in childhood: prospective cohort study. BMJ 320, 967–971 (2000)
  • Rolfe Ede L, Loos RJ, Druet C et al. Association between birth weight and visceral fat in adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 92, 347–352 (2010)
  • Ong KK, Loos RJ. Rapid infancy weight gain and subsequent obesity: systematic reviews and hopeful suggestions. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 95, 904–908 (2006)
  • Baird J, Fisher D, Lucas P et al. Being big or growing fast: systematic review of size and growth in infancy and later obesity. BMJ 331(7522), 929 (2005)
  • Monteiro PO, Victora CG. Rapid growth in infancy and childhood and obesity in later life: a systematic review. Obes. Rev. 6, 143–154 (2005)
  • Singhal A, Fewtrell M, Cole TJ, Lucas A. Low nutrient intake and early growth for later insulin resistance in adolescents born preterm. Lancet 361, 1089–1097 (2003)
  • Wells JC, Chomtho S, Fewtrell MS. Programming of body composition by early growth and nutrition. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 66, 423–434 (2007). nn Excellent overview of studies relating weight with body composition from childhood to old age
  • Barker DJ, Osmond C, Forsèn TJ, Kajantie E, Eriksson JG. Trajectories of growth among children who have coronary events as adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1802–1809 (2005)
  • Victora CG, Barros FC, Horta BL, Martorell R. Short-term benefits of catch-up growth for small-for-gestational-age infants. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30, 1325–1330 (2001)
  • Ehrenkranz RA, Dusick AM, Vohr BR et al. Growth in the neonatal intensive care unit influences neurodevelopmental and growth outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 117, 1253–1261 (2006)
  • Victora CG, Barros FC. Commentary: the catch-up dilemma: relevance of Leitch's 'low–high' pig to child growth in developing countries. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30, 217–220 (2001)
  • Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ. Randomised trial of early diet in preterm babies and later intelligence quotient. BMJ 317, 1481–1487 (1998)
  • Vohr BR, Poindexter BB, Dusick AM et al. Beneficial effects of breast milk in the neonatal intensive care unit on the developmental outcome of extremely low birth weight infants at 18 months of age. Pediatrics 118, e115–e123 (2006)
  • Poindexter BB, Langer JC, Dusick AM et al. Early provision of parenteral amino acids in extremely low birth weight infants: relation to growth and neurodevelopmental outcome. J. Pediatr. 148, 300–305 (2006)
  • Isaacs EB, Ross S, Kennedy K et al. 10?year cognition in preterms after random assignment to fatty acid supplementation in infancy. Pediatrics 128, e890–e898 (2011)
  • Schulzke SM, Patole SK, Simmer K. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 16, CD000375 (2011)
  • Eilander A, Hundscheid DC, Osendarp SJ et al. Effects of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on visual and cognitive development throughout childhood: a review of human studies. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 76, 189–203 (2007)
  • Makrides M, Gibson RA, McPhee AJ et al. Neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm infants fed high-dose docosahexaenoic acid: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 301, 175–182 (2009)
  • Smithers LG, Gibson RA, McPhee A, Makrides M. Higher dose of docosahexaenoic acid in the neonatal period improves visual acuity of preterm infants: results of a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 88, 1049–1056 (2008)
  • Lapillonne A, Jensen CL. Reevaluation of the DHA requirement for the premature infant. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 81, 143–150 (2009)
  • Widdowson EM. Changes in body proportions and composition during growth. In: Scientific Foundations of Paediatrics. Davis JA, Dobbing J (Eds). William Heineman Medical Books, London, UK, 153–163 (1975)
  • Lapillonne A, Braillon P, Claris O et al. Body composition in appropriate and in small for gestational age infants. Acta Paediatr. 86, 196–200 (1997)
  • Brans YW, Sumners JE, Dweck HS, Cassady G. A noninvasive approach to body composition in the neonate: dynamic skinfold measurements. Pediatr. Res. 8, 215–222 (1974)
  • Reichman B, Chessex P, Putet G et al. Diet, fat accretion, and growth in premature infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 305, 1495–1500 (1981)
  • Yau KI, Chang MH. Growth and body composition of preterm, small-for-gestationalage infants at a postmenstrual age of 37–40 weeks. Early Hum. Dev. 33, 117–131 (1993)
  • Rigo J, Nyamugabo K, Picaud JC et al. Reference values of body composition obtained by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry in preterm and term neonates. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 27, 184–190 (1998)
  • Cooke RJ, Griffin I. Altered body composition in preterm infants at hospital discharge. Acta Paediatr. 98, 1269–1273 (2009)
  • Griffin IJ, Cooke RJ. Development of whole body adiposity in preterm infants. Early Hum. Dev. 88(Suppl. 1), S19–S24 (2012)
  • Atkinson SA, Randall-Simpson J. Factors influencing body composition of premature infants at term-adjusted age. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 904, 393–399 (2000)
  • Ahmad I, Nemet D, Eliakim A et al. Body composition and its components in preterm and term newborns: a cross-sectional, multimodal investigation. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 22, 69–75 (2010)
  • Rawlings DJ, Cooke RJ, McCormick K et al. Body composition of preterm infants during infancy. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 80, F188–F191 (1999)
  • Roggero P, Gianní ML, Amato O et al. Is term newborn body composition being achieved postnatally in preterm infants? Early Hum. Dev. 85, 349–352 (2009)
  • Ramel SE, Gray HL, Ode KL et al. Body composition changes in preterm infants following hospital discharge: comparison with term infants. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 53, 333–338 (2011)
  • Gianní ML, Roggero P, Piemontese P et al. Body composition in newborn infants: 5?year experience in an Italian neonatal intensive care unit. Early Hum. Dev. 88(Suppl. 1), S13–S17 (2012)
  • Olhager E, Forsum E. Total energy expenditure, body composition and weight gain in moderately preterm and full-term infants at term postconceptional age. Acta Paediatr. 92, 1327–1334 (2003)
  • Uthaya S, Thomas EL, Hamilton G et al. Altered adiposity after extremely preterm birth. Ped. Res. 57, 211–215 (2005)
  • Thomas EL, Uthaya S, Vasu V et al. Neonatal intrahepatocellular lipid. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 93, F382–F383 (2008)
  • Gianní ML, Roggero P, Taroni F et al. Adiposity in small for gestational age preterm infants assessed at term equivalent age. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 94, F368–F372 (2009)
  • Schulze KF, Stefanski M, Masterson J et al. Energy expenditure, energy balance, and composition of weight gain in low birth weight infants fed diets of different protein and energy content. J. Pediatr. 110, 753–759 (1987)
  • Modi N, Murgasova D, Ruager-Martin R et al. The influence of maternal body mass index on infant adiposity and hepatic lipid content. Pediatr. Res. 70, 287–291 (2011)
  • Ibáñez L, Sebastiani G, Lopez-Bermejo A et al. Gender specificity of body adiposity and circulating adiponectin, visfatin, insulin, and insulin growth factor-I at term birth: relation to prenatal growth. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 93, 2774–2778 (2008)
  • Modi N, Thomas EL, Uthaya SN et al. Whole body magnetic resonance imaging of healthy newborn infants demonstrates increased central adiposity in Asian Indians. Pediatr. Res. 65, 584–587 (2009)
  • Modi N, Thomas EL, Harrington TA et al. Determinants of adiposity during preweaning postnatal growth in appropriately grown and growth-restricted term infants. Pediatr. Res. 60, 345–348 (2006)
  • Ibañez L, Ong K, Dunger DB, de Zegher F. Early development of adiposity and insulin resistance after catch-up weight gain in small-for-gestational-age children. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91, 2153–2158 (2006)
  • Cooke RJ, McCormick K, Griffin IJ et al. Feeding preterm infants after hospital discharge: effect of diet on body composition. Pediatr. Res. 46, 461–464 (1999)
  • Cooke RJ, Griffin IJ, McCormick K. Adiposity is not altered in preterm infants fed with a nutrient-enriched formula after hospital discharge. Pediatr. Res. 67, 660–664 (2010)
  • Amesz EM, Schaafsma A, Cranendonk A, Lafeber HN. Optimal growth and lower fat mass in preterm infants fed a protein-enriched postdischarge formula. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 50, 200–207 (2010)
  • De Curtis M, Pieltain C, Rigo J. Body composition in preterm infants fed standard term or enriched formula after hospital discharge. Eur. J. Nutr. 41, 177–182 (2002)
  • Fomon SJ, Haschke F, Ziegler EE, Nelson SE. Body composition of reference children from birth to age 10 years. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 35, S1169–S1175 (1982)
  • Butte NF, Hopkinson JM, Wong WW et al. Body composition during the first 2 years of life: an updated reference. Pediatr. Res. 47, 578–585 (2000)
  • Fewtrell MS, Lucas A, Cole TJ, Wells JC. Prematurity and reduced body fatness at 8–12 y of age. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80, 436–440 (2004)
  • Peralta-Carcelen M, Jackson DS, Goran MI et al. Growth of adolescents who were born at extremely low birth weight without major disability. J. Pediatr. 136, 633–640 (2000)
  • Gianní ML, Mora S, Roggero P, Amato et al. Regional fat distribution in children born preterm evaluated at school age. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 46, 232–235 (2008)
  • Willemsen RH, de Kort SW, van der Kaay DC, Hokken-Koelega AC. Independent effects of prematurity on metabolic and cardiovascular risk factors in short small-forgestational- age children. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 93, 452–458 (2008)
  • Darendeliler F, Bas F, Bundak R et al. Insulin resistance and body composition in preterm born children during prepubertal ages. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 68, 773–779 (2008)
  • Mericq V, Iñiguez G, Bazaes R et al. Differences in body composition and energy expenditure in prepubertal children born term or preterm appropriate or small for gestational age. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 22, 1041–1050 (2009)
  • Thomas EL, Parkinson JR, Hyde MJ et al. Aberrant adiposity and ectopic lipid deposition characterize the adult phenotype of the preterm infant. Pediatr. Res. 70, 507–512 (2011). n First study to look at changes in adipose tissue distribution using imaging in preterm adults
  • Finken MJ, Meulenbelt I, Dekker FW et al. Abdominal fat accumulation in adults born preterm exposed antenatally to maternal glucocorticoid treatment is dependent on glucocorticoid receptor gene variation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96, e1650–e1655 (2011)
  • Singhal A, Fewtrell M, Cole TJ, Lucas A. Low nutrient intake and early growth for later insulin resistance in adolescents born preterm. Lancet 361, 1089–1097 (2003)
  • Sipola-Leppänen M, Hovi P, Andersson S et al. Resting energy expenditure in young adults born preterm – the Helsinki study of very low birth weight adults. PLoS ONE 6, e17700 (2011)
  • Powell EE, Cooksley WG, Hanson R et al. The natural history of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a follow-up study of forty-two patients for up to 21 years. Hepatology 11, 74–80 (1990)
  • Kistner A, Celsi G, Vanpee M et al. Increased systolic daily ambulatory blood pressure in adult women born preterm. Pediatr. Nephrol. 20, 946–953 (2005)
  • Siewert-Delle A, Ljungman S. The impact of birthweight and gestational age on blood pressure in adult life: a population-based study of 49?year-old men. Am. J. Hypertens. 11, 946–953 (1998)
  • Bonamy AK, Bendito A, Martin H. Preterm birth contributes to increased vascular resistance and higher blood pressure in adolescent girls. Pediatr. Res. 58, 845–849 (2005)
  • Doyle LW, Faber B, Callanan C, Morley R. Blood pressure in late adolescence and very low birth weight. Pediatrics 111, 252–257 (2003)
  • Hack M, Schluchter M, Cartar L, Rahman M. Blood pressure among very low birth weight (ü1.5 kg) young adults. Pediatr. Res. 58, 677–684 (2005)
  • Johansson S, Iliadou A, Bergvall N et al. Risk of high blood pressure among young men increases with the degree of immaturity at birth. Circulation 112, 3430–3436 (2005)
  • Rossi P, Tauzin L, Marchand E et al. Respective roles of preterm birth and fetal growth restriction in blood pressure and arterial stiffness in adolescence. J. Adolesc. Health 48, 520–522 (2011)
  • Evensen KA, Steinshamn S, Tjønna AE et al. Effects of preterm birth and fetal growth retardation on cardiovascular risk factors in young adulthood. Early Hum. Dev. 85, 239–245 (2009)
  • Oren A, Vos LE, Bos WJ et al. Gestational age and birth weight in relation to aortic stiffness in healthy young adults: two separate mechanisms? Am. J. Hypertens. 16, 76–79 (2003)
  • Ligi I, Grandvuillemin I, Andres V et al. Low birth weight infants and the developmental programming of hypertension: a focus on vascular factors. Semin. Perinatol. 34, 188–192 (2010)
  • Singhal A, Kattenhorn M, Cole TJ et al. Preterm birth, vascular function, and risk factors for atherosclerosis. Lancet 358, 1159–1160 (2001)
  • Skilton MR, Viikari JS, Juonala M et al. Fetal growth and preterm birth influence cardiovascular risk factors and arterial health in young adults: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 31, 2975–2981 (2011)
  • Levitt NS, Lambert EV, Woods D et al. Impaired glucose tolerance and elevated blood pressure in low birth weight, nonobese, young South African adults: early programming of cortisol axis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85, 4611–4618 (2000)
  • Power C, Li L, Hertzman C. Associations of early growth and adult adiposity with patterns of salivary cortisol in adulthood. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91, 4264–4270 (2006)
  • Sutherland MR, Gubhaju L, Moore L et al. Accelerated maturation and abnormal morphology in the preterm neonatal kidney. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 22, 1365–1374 (2011)
  • Lithell HO, McKeigue PM, Berglund L et al. Relation of size at birth to non-insulin dependent diabetes and insulin concentrations in men aged 50–60 years. BMJ 312, 406–410 (1996)
  • Rich-Edwards JW, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ et al. Birthweight and the risk for Type 2 diabetes mellitus in adult women. Ann. Int. Med. 130, 278–284 (1999)
  • Hales CN, Desai M, Ozanne SE. The Thrifty Phenotype hypothesis: how does it look after 5 years? Diabet. Med. 14, 189–195 (1997)
  • Phillips DI, Barker DJ, Hales CN, Hirst S, Osmond C. Thinness at birth and insulin resistance in adult life. Diabetologia 37, 150–154 (1994)
  • Hofman PL, Regan F, Jackson WE et al. Premature birth and later insulin resistance. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 2179–2186 (2004)
  • Leipala JA, Raivio KO, Sarnesto A et al. Intrauterine growth restriction and postnatal steroid treatment effects on insulin sensitivity in preterm neonates. J. Pediatr. 141, 472–476 (2002)
  • Hofman PL, Cutfield WS, Robinson EM et al. Insulin resistance in short children with intrauterine growth retardation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82, 402–406 (1997)
  • Willemsen RH, Leunissen RW, Stijnen T, Hokken-Koelega AC. Prematurity is not associated with reduced insulin sensitivity in adulthood. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 94, 1695–1700 (2009)
  • Finken MJ, Keijzer-Veen MG, Dekker FW et al. Preterm birth and later insulin resistance: effects of birth weight and postnatal growth in a population based longitudinal study from birth into adult life. Diabetologia 49, 478–485 (2006)
  • Finken MJ, Inderson A, Van Montfoort N et al. Lipid profile and carotid intima–media thickness in a prospective cohort of very preterm subjects at age 19 years: effects of early growth and current body composition. Pediatr. Res. 59, 604–609 (2006)
  • Rotteveel J, van Weissenbruch MM, Twisk JW, Delemarre-Van de Waal HA. Insulin sensitivity in prematurely born adults: relation to preterm growth restraint. Horm. Res. Paediatr. 75, 252–257 (2011)
  • Rotteveel J, van Weissenbruch MM, Twisk JW, Delemarre-Van de Waal HA. Abnormal lipid profile and hyperinsulinaemia after a mixed meal: additional cardiovascular risk factors in young adults born preterm. Diabetologia 51, 1269–1275 (2008)
  • Manenschijn L, van den Akker EL, Lamberts SW, van Rossum EF. Clinical features associated with glucocorticoid receptor polymorphisms. An overview. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1179, 179–198 (2009)
  • Kuo LE, Kitlinska JB, Tilan JU et al. Neuropeptide Y acts directly in the periphery on fat tissue and mediates stress-induced obesity and metabolic syndrome. Nat. Med. 13, 803–811 (2007)
  • Girard J. Metabolic adaptations to change of nutrition at birth. Biol. Neonate 58, 3–15 (1990)
  • Lewandowski AJ, Lazdam M, Davis E et al. Short-term exposure to exogenous lipids in premature infants and long-term changes in aortic and cardiac function. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 31, 2125–2135 (2011)
  • Yki-Järvinen H. Liver fat in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes. Dig. Dis. 28, 203–209 (2010)
  • Muhlhausler BS, Duffield JA, Ozanne SE et al. The transition from fetal growth restriction to accelerated postnatal growth: a potential role for insulin signalling in skeletal muscle. J. Physiol. 587, 4199–4211 (2009)
  • Garnett S, Cowell CT, Bradford D et al. Effects of gender, body composition and birth size on IGF-I in 7- and 8?year old children. Horm. Res. 52, 221–229 (1999)
  • Casimir M, de Andrade PB, Gjinovci A et al. A role for pancreatic beta-cell secretory hyperresponsiveness in catch-up growth hyperinsulinemia: relevance to thrifty catch-up fat phenotype and risks for Type 2 diabetes. Nutr. Metab. (Lond.) 8(1), 2 (2011)
  • Holmes E, Loo RL, Stamler J et al. Human metabolic phenotype diversity and its association with diet and blood pressure. Nature 453, 396–400 (2008)
  • Wiedmeier JE, Joss-Moore LA, Lane RH, Neu J. Early postnatal nutrition and programming of the preterm neonate. Nutr. Rev. 69, 76–82 (2011)
  • Ziegler EE, O'Donnell AM, Nelson SE, Fomon SJ. Body composition of the reference fetus. Growth 40, 329–341 (1976)
  • Crump C, Winkleby MA, Sundquist K, Sundquist J. Risk of diabetes among young adults born preterm in Sweden. Diabetes Care 34, 1109–1113 (2011)
  • Swamy GK, Ostbye T, Skjaerven R. Association of preterm birth with long-term survival, reproduction, and next-generation preterm birth. JAMA 299, 1429–1436 (2008)
  • Kotecha SJ, Watkins WJ, Paranjothy S et al. Effect of late preterm birth on longitudinal lung spirometry in school age children and adolescents. Thorax 67, 54–61 (2012)
  • Wong P, Murray C, Louw J et al. Adult bronchopulmonary dysplasia: computed tomography pulmonary findings. J. Med. Imaging Radiat. Oncol. 55, 373–378 (2011)
  • Narang I, Rosenthal M, Cremonesini D et al. Longitudinal evaluation of airway function 21 years after preterm birth. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 178, 74–80 (2008)
  • Moster D, Lie RT, Markestad T. Long-term medical and social consequences of preterm birth. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 262–273 (2008)
  • Doyle LW, Anderson PJ. Adult outcome of extremely preterm infants. Pediatrics 126, 342–351 (2010)
  • Siltanen M, Wehkalampi K, Hovi P et al. Preterm birth reduces the incidence of atopy in adulthood. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 127, 935–942 (2011)
  • Hack M, Klein N. Young adult attainments of preterm infants. JAMA 295, 695–696 (2006).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.