Pediatric lipid screening

References

• Heidenreich PA, Trogdon JG, Khavjou OA et al. Forecasting the future of cardiovascular disease in the United States: a policy statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 123(8), 933–944 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Rosamond W, Flegal K, Friday G et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics - 2007 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 115 (5) , e69–e171 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Mahoney EM, Wang K, Cohen DJ et al. REACH Registry Investigators. One?year costs in patients with a history of or at risk for atherothrombosis in the United States. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 1(1), 38–45 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Expert Panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents: summary report. Pediatrics 128(Suppl. 5), S213-S256 (2011). Summary of current US screening and treatment guidelines for all cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors, including dyslipidemia.
   Google Scholar
• Humphries SE. Guidelines for the identifcation and management of patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH): are we coming to a consensus? Atheroscler. Suppl. 12(2), 217–220 (2012). Summary of how US guidelines compare with other countries.
   Google Scholar
• Qureshi N, Humphries SE, Seed M, Rowlands P, Minhas R; NICE Guideline Development Group. Identifcation and management of familial hypercholesterolaemia: what does it mean to primary care? Br. J. Gen. Pract. 59(567), 773–776 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Watts GF, Sullivan DR, Poplawski N et al. Familial hypercholesterolaemia: a model of care for Australasia. Atheroscler. Suppl. 12(2), 221–263 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• O'Kane MJ, Menown IB, Graham I et al. The detection of heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia in Ireland. Adv. Ther. 29(5), 456–463 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Watts GF, Lewis B, Sullivan DR. Familial hypercholesterolemia: a missed opportunity in preventive medicine. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 4(8), 404–405 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Carr MC, Brunzell JD. Abdominal obesity and dyslipidemia in the metabolic syndrome: importance of Type 2 diabetes and familial combined hyperlipidemia in coronary artery disease risk. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89(6), 2601–2607 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein JL, Schrott HG, Hazzard WR, Bierman EL, Motulsky AG. Hyperlipidemia in coronary heart disease. II. Genetic ana lysis of lipid levels in 176 families and delineation of a new inherited disorder, combined hyperlipidemia. J. Clin. Invest. 52(7), 1544–1568 (1973) .
   Google Scholar
• Wiesbauer F, Blessberger H, Azar D et al. Familial?combined hyperlipidaemia in very young myocardial infarction survivors (< or =40 years of age). Eur. Heart J. 30(9), 1073–1079 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Gaddi A, Cicero AF, Odoo FO, Poli AA, Paoletti R. Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Diseases Study Group. Practical guidelines for familial combined hyperlipidemia diagnosis: an update. Vasc. Health Risk Manag. 3(6), 877–886 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg AC, Hopkins PN, Toth PP et al. Familial hypercholesterolemia: screening, diagnosis and management of pediatric and adult patients: clinical guidance from the National Lipid Association Expert Panel on Familial Hypercholesterolemia. J. Clin. Lipidol. 5(Suppl. 3), S30–S37 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Hopkins PN, Toth PP, Ballantyne CM, Rader DJ. National Lipid Association Expert Panel on Familial Hypercholesterolemia. Familial hypercholesterolemias: prevalence, genetics, diagnosis and screening recommendations from the National Lipid Association Expert Panel on Familial Hypercholesterolemia. J. Clin. Lipidol. 5(Suppl. 3), S9–S17 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Daniels SR, Gidding SS, de Ferranti SD. National Lipid Association Expert Panel on Familial Hypercholesterolemia. Pediatric aspects of familial hypercholesterolemias: recommendations from the National Lipid Association Expert Panel on Familial Hypercholesterolemia. J. Clin. Lipidol. 5(Suppl. 3), S7–S30 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Dalpino FB, Menna?Barreto L, de Faria EC. Infuences of sex and age on biological rhythms of serum lipids and lipoproteins. Clin. Chim. Acta 406(1-2), 57–61 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Report of the National Cholesterol Expert Panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high cholesterol in adults. Arch. Intern. Med. 148(1), 36–39 (1988).
   Google Scholar
• National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP): highlights of the report of the expert panel on blood cholesterol levels in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 89(3), 495–501 (1992) .
   Google Scholar
• Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CN et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Circulation 110(2), 227–239 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Kavey RE, Alada V, Daniels SR et al. Cardiovascular risk reduction in high?risk pediatric patients: a scientifc statement from the American Heart Association Expert Panel on population and prevention science; the councils on cardiovascular disease in the young, epidemiology and prevention, nutrition, physical activity and metabolism, high blood pressure research, cardiovascular nursing, and the kidney in heart disease; and the Interdisciplinary Working Group on quality of care and outcomes research; endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Circulation 114(24), 2710–2738 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Daniels SR, Greer FR. Committee on Nutrition. Lipid screening and cardiovascular health in childhood. Pediatrics 122(1), 198–208 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• McCrindle BW, Kwiterovich PO, McBride PE, Daniels SR, Kavey RE. Guidelines for lipid screening in children and adolescents: bringing evidence to the debate. Pediatrics 130(2), 353–356 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Newman TB, Pletcher MJ, Hulley SB. Overly aggressive new guidelines for lipid screening in children: evidence of a broken process. Pediatrics 130(2), 349–352 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Mitka M. Experts question recommendations for universal lipid screenings in children. JAMA 308(8), 750–751 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Kwiterovich PO, Gidding SS. Universal screening of cholesterol in children. Clin. Cardiol. 35(11), 662–664 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Schroeder AR, Redberg RF. Cholesterol screening and management in children and young adults should start early - NO! Clin. Cardiol. 35(11), 665–668 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Cui Y, Blumenthal RS, Flaws et al. Non?high? density lipoprotein cholesterol level as a predictor of cardiovascular disease mortality. Arch. Intern. Med. 161(11), 1413–1419 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Srinivasan SR, Frontini MG, Xu J, Berenson GS. Utility of childhood non?high?density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in predicting adult dyslipidemia and other cardiovascular risks: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics 118(1), 201–206 (2006). Provides the rationale for using non-HDL cholesterol as a screening test.
   Google Scholar
• Rainwater DL, McMahan CA, Malcom GT et al. Lipid and apolipoprotein predictors of atherosclerosis in youth: apolipoprotein concentrations do not materially improve prediction of arterial lesions in PDAY subjects. The PDAY Research Group. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19(3), 753–761 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Steinberger J, Daniels SR; American Heart Association Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in the Young Committee (Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young); American Heart Association Diabetes Committee (Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism). Obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk in children: an American Heart Association scientifc statement from the atherosclerosis, hypertension, and obesity in the Young Committee (Council on cardiovascular disease in the young) and the Diabetes Committee (Council on nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism). Circulation 107(10), 1448–1453 (2003).
   Google Scholar
• Berenson GS, Srinivasan SR, Bao W, Newman WP 3rd, Tracy RE, Wattigney WA. Association between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in children and young adults. The Bogalusa Heart Study. N. Engl. J. Med. 338(23), 1650–1656 (1998). Describes the impact of multiple risk factors on the development of atherosclerotic vascular changes.
   Google Scholar
• McMahan CA, Gidding SS, Viikari JS et al. Association of pathobiologic determinants of atherosclerosis in youth risk score and 15?year change in risk score with carotid artery intima-media thickness in young adults (from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study). Am. J. Cardiol. 100(7), 1124–1129 (2007) .
   Google Scholar
• Magnussen CG, Venn A, Thomson R et al. The association of pediatric low? and high? density lipoprotein cholesterol dyslipidemia classifcations and change in dyslipidemia status with carotid intima-media thickness in adulthood evidence from the cardiovascular risk in Young Finns study, the Bogalusa Heart study, and the CDAH (Childhood Determinants of Adult Health) st udy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 53(10), 860–869 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• McGill HC Jr, McMahan CA, Gidding SS. Preventing heart disease in the 21st century: implications of the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) study. Circulation 117 (9) , 1216–1227 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Bao W, Srinivasan SR, Wattigney WA, Berenson GS. Usefulness of childhood low? density lipoprotein cholesterol level in predicting adult dyslipidemia and other cardiovascular risks. The Bogalusa Heart St udy. Arch. Intern. Med. 156 (12) , 1315–1320 (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Lauer RM, Lee J, Clarke WR. Predicting adult cholesterol levels from measurements in childhood and adolescence: the Muscatine St udy. Bull. N. Acad. Med. 65(10), 1127–1142 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Webber LS, Srinivasan SR, Wattigney WA, Berenson GS. Tracking of serum lipids and lipoproteins from childhood to adulthood. The Bogalusa Heart Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 133(9), 884–899 (1991).
   Google Scholar
• Raitakari OT, Juonala M, Kahonen M et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. JAMA 290 (17), 2277–2283 (2003). Describes how risk factors in youth induce early atherosclerotic vascular changes.
   Google Scholar
• Pletcher MJ, Bibbins?Domingo K, Liu K et al. Nonoptimal lipids commonly present in young adults and coronary calcium later in life: the CARDIA (Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults) study. Ann. Intern. Med. 153(3), 137–146 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• de Jongh S, Lilien MR, op't Roodt J, Stroes ES, Bakker HD, Kastelein JJ. Early statin therapy restores endothelial function in children with familial hypercholesterolemia. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 40 (12), 2117–2121 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Wiegman A, Hutten BA, de Groot E et al. Effcacy and safety of statin therapy in children with familial hypercholesterolemia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 292(3), 331–337 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Rodenburg J, Vissers MN, Wiegman A et al. Statin treatment in children with familial hypercholesterolemia: the younger, the better. Circulation 116(6), 664–668 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Gillman M W, Daniels SR. Is universal pediatric lipid screening justifed? JAMA 307(3), 259–260 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for Lipid Disorders in Children: Recommendation Statement. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, MD, USA (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Marks D, Thorogood M, Neil HA, Humphries SE. A review on the diagnosis, natural history, and treatment of familial hypercholesterolaemia. Atherosclerosis 168(1), 1–14 (2003). Excellent review of the natural history of familial hypercholesterolemia.
   Google Scholar
• Psaty BM, Rivara FP. Universal screening and drug treatment of dysplipdemia in children and adolescents. JAMA 307(3), 257–258 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Heneghan C. Considerable uncertainty remains in the evidence for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease [editorial]. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 14(8), ED000017 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Ridker PM, Pradhan A, MacFadyen JG, Libby P, Glynn RJ. Cardiovascular benefts and diabetes risks of statin therapy in primary prevention: an ana lysis from the JUPITER trial. Lancet 380(9841), 565–571 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Kostis WJ, Cheng JQ, Dobrzynski JM, Cabrera J, Kostis JB. Meta?ana lysis of statin effects in women versus men. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 59(6), 572–582 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Mitka M. Some question use of statins to reduce cardiovascular risks in healthy women. JAMA 307(9), 893–894 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Preiss D, Seshasai SR, Welsh P et al. Risk of incident diabetes with intensive?dose compared with moderate?dose statin therapy: a meta?analysis. JAMA 305(24), 2556–2564 (2011) .
   Google Scholar
• Sattar N, Preiss D, Murray HM et al. Statins and risk of incident diabetes: a collaborative meta?ana lysis of randomised statin trials. Lancet 375(9716), 735–742 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Culver AL, Ockene IS, Balasubramanian R et al. Statin use and risk of diabetes mellitus in postmenopausal women in the Women's Health Initiative. Arch. Intern. Med. 172(2), 144–152 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Sattar N, Taskinen MR. Statins are diabetogenic - myth or reality? Atheroscler. Suppl. 13(1), 1–10 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Bhatia L, Byrne CD. There is a slight increase in incident diabetes risk with the use of statins, but benefts likely outweigh any adverse effects in those with moderate?to? high cardiovascular risk. Evid. Based Med. 15(3), 84–85 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Lazar LD, Pletcher MJ, Coxson PG, Bibbins? Domingo K, Goldman L. Cost-effectiveness of statin therapy for primary prevention in a low?cost statin era. Circulation 124(2), 146–153 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Tonelli M, Lloyd A, Clement F et al. Effcacy of statins for primary prevention in people at low cardiovascular risk: a meta?ana lysis. CMAJ 183 (16) , e1189–e1202 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Conly J, Clement F, Tonelli M et al. Cost-effectiveness of the use of low? and high?potency statins in people at low cardiovascular risk. CMAJ 183 (16), e1180–e1188 (2011) .
   Google Scholar
• Greving JP, Visseren FL, de Wit GA, Algra A. Statin treatment for primary prevention of vascular disease: whom to treat? Cost-effectiveness analysis. BMJ 342 , d1672 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Marks D, Wonderling D, Thorogood M, Lambert H, Humphries SE, Neil HA. Screening for hypercholesterolaemia versus case fnding for familial hypercholesterolaemia: a systematic review and cost-effectiveness ana lysis. Health Technol. Assess. 4(29), 1–123 (2000).
   Google Scholar
• McNeal CJ, Dajani T, Wilson D, Cassidy? Bushrow AE, Dickerson JB, Ory M. Hypercholesterolemia in youth: obstacles and opportunities to prevent premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 12(1), 20–28 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• McNeal CJ, Wilson DP, Christou D, Bush RL, Shepherd LG, Santiago J. The use of surrogate vascular markers in youth at risk for premature cardiovascular disease. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 22(3 ), 195–211 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Williams CL, Hayman LL, Daniels SR et al. Cardiovascular health in childhood: a statement for health professionals from the Committee on Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in the Young (AHOY) of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association. Circulation 106(9), 143–160 (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Gidding SS, Daniels SR, Kavey RE; Expert Panel on Cardiovascular Health and Risk Reduction in Youth. Developing the 2011 integrated pediatric guidelines for cardiovascular risk reduction. Pediatrics 129 (5), e1311–e1319 (2012).
   Google Scholar
• Dawson JD, Sonka M, Blecha MB, Lin W, Davis PH. Risk factors associated with aortic and carotid intima-media thickness in adolescents and young adults: the Muscatine Offspring Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 53(24), 2273–2279 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Davis PH, Dawson JD, Riley WA, Lauer RM. Carotid intimal?medial thickness is related to cardiovascular risk factors measured from childhood through middle age: the Muscatine St udy. Circulation 104 (23), 2815–2819 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Paul TK, Chen W, Srinivasan SR, He J, Berenson GS. Contrast of the impact of multiple cardiovascular risk factors on the femoral and carotid intima-media thickness in asymptomatic young adults: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Atherosclerosis 216(2), 359–364 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Strong JP, Malcom GT, McMahan CA et al. Prevalence and extent of atherosclerosis in adolescents and young adults: implications for prevention from the pathobiological determinants of atherosclerosis in youth study. JAMA 281(8), 727–735 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• McMahan CA, Gidding SS, Fayad ZA et al. Risk scores predict atherosclerotic lesions in young people. Arch. Intern. Med. 165(8), 883–890 (2005). Describes the development and relevance of the PDAY risk score.
   Google Scholar
• Gidding SS, McMahan CA, McGill HC et al. Prediction of coronary artery calcium in young adults using the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) risk score: the CARDIA study. Arch. Intern. Med. 166(21), 2341–2347 (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Magnussen CG, Raitakari OT, Thomson R et al. Utility of currently recommended pediatric dyslipidemia classifcations in predicting dyslipidemia in adulthood: evidence from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health (CDAH) study, Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study, and Bogalusa Heart Study. Circulation 117(1), 32–42 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Juonala M, Magnussen CG, Venn A et al. Infuence of age on associations between childhood risk factors and carotid intima-media thickness in adulthood: the cardiovascular risk in Young Finns Study, the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health study, the Bogalusa Heart study, and the Muscatine study for the International Childhood Cardiovascular cohort (i3C) consortium. Circulation 122(24), 2514–2520 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Horton JD, Cohen JC, Hobbs HH. PCSK9: a convertase that coordinates LDL catabolism. J. Lipid Res. 50(Suppl.), S172–S177 (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Ritchie SK, Murphy EC, Ice C et al. Universal versus targeted blood cholesterol screening among youth: the CARDIAC project. Pediatrics 126(2), 260–265 (2010).
   Google Scholar