References
- Bisson JI , CosgroveS , LewisC , RobertNP. Post-traumatic stress disorder. BMJ351, h6161 (2015).
- Nemeroff CB , BremnerJD , FoaEB , MaybergHS , NorthCS , SteinMB. Posttraumatic stress disorder: a state-of-the-science review. J. Psychiatr. Res.40(1), 1–21 (2006).
- Bonanno GA . Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events?Am. Psychol.59(1), 20–28 (2004).
- National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health,Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) . The Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care. Psychiatric Bulletin.30(9), 357–372 (2005).
- Cowden Hindash AH , LujanC , HowardMet al. Gender differences in threat biases: trauma type matters in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma. Stress32(5), 701–711 (2019).
- Amnesty International. “Wounds that burn our souls”: Compensation forKosovo’s wartime rape survivors, but still no justice. Amnesty International EUR 70/7558/2017, 1–55, https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/EUR7075582017ENGLISH.PDF (2017).
- Lopes Cardozo B , VergaraA , AganiF , GotwayCA. Mental health, social functioning, and attitudes of Kosovar Albanians following the war in Kosovo. JAMA284(5), 569–577 (2000).
- Wenzel T , RushitiF , AghaniF , DiaconuG , MaxhuniB , ZitterlW. Suicidal ideation, post-traumatic stress and suicide statistics in Kosovo. An analysis five years after the war. Suicidal ideation in Kosovo. Torture19(3), 238–247 (2009).
- Tol WA , StavrouV , GreeneMC , MergenthalerC , Van OmmerenM , GarcíaMoreno C. Sexual and gender-based violence in areas of armed conflict: a systematic review of mental health and psychosocial support interventions. Confl. Health7(1), 16 (2013).
- Ryan J , ChaudieuI , AncelinML , SafferyR. Biological underpinnings of trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder: focusing on genetics and epigenetics. Epigenomics8(11), 1553–1569 (2016).
- Palosaari E , PunamäkiRL , QoutaS , DiabM. Intergenerational effects of war trauma among Palestinian families mediated via psychological maltreatment. Child Abuse Negl.37(11), 955–968 (2013).
- Yehuda R , SchmeidlerJ , WainbergM , Binder-BrynesK , DuvdevaniT. Vulnerability to posttraumatic stress disorder in adult offspring of Holocaust survivors. Am. J. Psychiatry155(9), 1163–1171 (1998).
- Wang SJ , PacolliS , RushitiF , RexhajB , ModvigJ. Survivors of war in the Northern Kosovo (II): baseline clinical and functional assessment and lasting effects on the health of a vulnerable population. Confl. Health4, 16 (2010).
- Wang SJ , SalihuM , RushitiF , BalaL , ModvigJ. Survivors of the war in the Northern Kosovo: violence exposure, risk factors and public health effects of an ethnic conflict. Confl. Health4, 11 (2010).
- Yehuda R , TeicherMH , SecklJR , GrossmanRA , MorrisA , BiererLM. Parental posttraumatic stress disorder as a vulnerability factor for low cortisol trait in offspring of holocaust survivors. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry64(9), 1040–1048 (2007).
- Yahyavi ST , ZarghamiM , MarwahU. A review on the evidence of transgenerational transmission of posttraumatic stress disorder vulnerability. Braz. J. Psychiatry36(1), 1516–4446 (2014).
- Heijmans BT , TobiEW , SteinADet al. Persistent epigenetic differences associated with prenatal exposure to famine in humans. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA105(44), 17046–17049 (2008).
- Hjort L , NovakovicB , GrunnetLGet al. Diabetes in pregnancy and epigenetic mechanisms-how the first 9 months from conception might affect the child’s epigenome and later risk of disease. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol.7(10), 796–806 (2019).
- Ryan J , MansellT , FransquetP , SafferyR. Does maternal mental well-being in pregnancy impact the early human epigenome?Epigenomics9(3), 313–332 (2017).
- Yehuda R , DaskalakisNP , LehrnerAet al. Influences of maternal and paternal PTSD on epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in Holocaust survivor offspring. Am. J. Psychiatry171(8), 872–880 (2014).
- Lehrner A , BiererLM , PassarelliVet al. Maternal PTSD associates with greater glucocorticoid sensitivity in offspring of Holocaust survivors. Psychoneuroendocrinology40, 213–220 (2014).
- Association AP . Diagnostic And Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders. (5th Edition). American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington DC, USA (2013).
- Turner SW , BowieC , DunnG , ShapoL , YuleW. Mental health of Kosovan Albanian refugees in the UK. Br. J. Psychiatry182, 444–448 (2003).
- Weathers FW , KeaneTM , DavidsonJR. Clinician-administered PTSD scale: a review of the first ten years of research. Depress. Anxiety13(3), 132–156 (2001).
- Aryee MJ , JaffeAE , Corrada-BravoHet al. Minfi: a flexible and comprehensive bioconductor package for the analysis of Infinium DNA methylation microarrays. Bioinformatics30(10), 1363–1369 (2014).
- Pidsley R , ZotenkoE , PetersTJet al. Critical evaluation of the Illumina MethylationEPIC BeadChip microarray for whole-genome DNA methylation profiling. Genome Biol.17(1), 208 (2016).
- Chen YA , LemireM , ChoufaniSet al. Discovery of cross-reactive probes and polymorphic CpGs in the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation450 microarray. Epigenetics8(2), 203–209 (2013).
- Du P , ZhangX , HuangCCet al. Comparison of beta-value and M-value methods for quantifying methylation levels by microarray analysis. BMC Bioinformatics11, 587 (2010).
- Houseman EA , AccomandoWP , KoestlerDCet al. DNA methylation arrays as surrogate measures of cell mixture distribution. BMC Bioinformatics13, 86 (2012).
- Koestler DC , ChristensenB , KaragasMRet al. Blood-based profiles of DNA methylation predict the underlying distribution of cell types: a validation analysis. Epigenetics8(8), 816–826 (2013).
- Salas LA , KoestlerDC , ButlerRAet al. An optimized library for reference-based deconvolution of whole-blood biospecimens assayed using the Illumina HumanMethylationEPIC BeadArray. Genome Biol.19(1), 64 (2018).
- Ritchie ME , PhipsonB , WuDet al. limma powers differential expression analyses for RNA-sequencing and microarray studies. Nucleic Acids Res.43(7), e47 (2015).
- Benjamini Y , DraiD , ElmerG , KafkafiN , GolaniI. Controlling the false discovery rate in behavior genetics research. Behav. Brain Res.125(1–2), 279–284 (2001).
- Peters TJ , BuckleyMJ , StathamALet al. De novo identification of differentially methylated regions in the human genome. Epigenetics Chromatin.8, 6 (2015).
- Perroud N , RutembesaE , Paoloni-GiacobinoAet al. The Tutsi genocide and transgenerational transmission of maternal stress: epigenetics and biology of the HPA axis. World J. Biol. Psychiatry.15(4), 334–345 (2014).
- Non AL , BinderAM , KubzanskyLD , MichelsKB. Genome-wide DNA methylation in neonates exposed to maternal depression, anxiety, or SSRI medication during pregnancy. Epigenetics9(7), 964–972 (2014).
- Devlin AM , BrainU , AustinJ , OberlanderTF. Prenatal exposure to maternal depressed mood and the MTHFR C677T variant affect SLC6A4 methylation in infants at birth. PLoS ONE5(8), e12201 (2010).
- Davis LL , SurisA , LambertMT , HeimbergC , PettyF. Post-traumatic stress disorder and serotonin: new directions for research and treatment. J. Psychiatry. Neurosci.22(5), 318–326 (1997).
- Koenen KC , UddinM , ChangSCet al. SLC6A4 methylation modifies the effect of the number of traumatic events on risk for posttraumatic stress disorder. Depress. Anxiety28(8), 639–647 (2011).
- Rabl U , MeyerBM , DiersKet al. Additive gene-environment effects on hippocampal structure in healthy humans. J. Neurosci.34(30), 9917–9926 (2014).
- Ancelin ML , RyanJ. 5-HTTLPR × stress hypothesis: is the debate over?Mol. Psychiatry23(11), 2116–2117 (2018).
- Van IMH , CaspersK , Bakermans-KranenburgMJ , BeachSR , PhilibertR. Methylation matters: interaction between methylation density and serotonin transporter genotype predicts unresolved loss or trauma. Biol. Psychiatry68(5), 405–407 (2010).
- Unternaehrer E , MeyerAH , BurkhardtSCet al. Childhood maternal care is associated with DNA methylation of the genes for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and oxytocin receptor (OXTR) in peripheral blood cells in adult men and women. Stress18(4), 451–461 (2015).
- Rutten BPF , VermettenE , VinkersCHet al. Longitudinal analyses of the DNA methylome in deployed military servicemen identify susceptibility loci for post-traumatic stress disorder. Mol. Psychiatry23(5), 1145–1156 (2018).
- Morris MC , CompasBE , GarberJ. Relations among posttraumatic stress disorder, comorbid major depression, and HPA function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev.32(4), 301–315 (2012).
- Doom JR , CicchettiD , RogoschFA. Longitudinal patterns of cortisol regulation differ in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry53(11), 1206–1215 (2014).
- Wagner SL , CepedaI , KriegerDet al. Higher cortisol is associated with poorer executive functioning in preschool children: The role of parenting stress, parent coping and quality of daycare. Child Neuropsychol.22(7), 853–869 (2016).
- Murray LK , TolW , JordansMet al. Dissemination and implementation of evidence based, mental health interventions in post conflict, low resource settings. Intervention (Amstelveen)12(Suppl. 1), 94–112 (2014).