The Imprinted Brain: How Genes Set the Balance Between Autism and Psychosis

• Aitken K : Intersubjectivity, affective neuroscience, and the neurobiology of autistic spectrum disorders: a systematic review.Keio J. Med.57(1) , 15–36 (2008).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• St Clair D : Rates of adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to the Chinese famine of 1959–1961.JAMA294(5) , 557–562 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Susser E , St Clair D, He L: Latent effects of prenatal malnutrition on adult health: the example of schizophrenia. Ann. NY Acad. Sci.1136 , 185–192 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wicks S : Social adversity in childhood and the risk of developing psychosis: a national cohort study.Am. J. Psychiatry162(9) , 1652–1657 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badcock C : An evolutionary theory of mind and of mental illness: genetic conflict and the mentalistic continuum. In: Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology. Crawford C, Krebs D (Eds). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, NY, USA, 431–450 (2008).
   Google Scholar
• Badcock C : The Imprinted Brain: How Genes Set the Balance Between Autism and Psychosis. Jessica Kingsley, London, UK and Philadelphia, USA (2009).
   Google Scholar
• Badcock C , CrespiB: Imbalanced genomic imprinting in brain development: an evolutionary basis for the etiology of autism.J. Evol. Biol.19(4) , 1007–1032 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badcock C , CrespiB: Battle of the sexes may set the brain.Nature454 , 1054–1055 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crespi B , BadcockC: Psychosis and autism as diametrical disorders of the social brain.Behav. Brain Sci.31(3) , 241–320 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crespi B , SteadP, ElliotM: Comparative genomics of autism and schizophrenia.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA107(Suppl. 1) , 1736–1741 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crespi B : Genomic imprinting in the development and evolution of psychotic spectrum conditions.Biol. Rev.83 , 441–493 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haig D : Genomic Imprinting and Kinship. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, USA (2002).
   Google Scholar
• Barlow D : Gametic imprinting in mammals.Science270(8) , 1610–1613 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Chiara T , RobertsonE, EfstratiadisA: Parental imprinting of the mouse insulin-like growth factor II gene.Cell64(22) , 849–859 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reik W , SuraniA: Genomic Imprinting. IRL Press, Oxford, UK (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Haig D , GrahamC: Genomic imprinting and the strange case of the insulin-like growth factor II receptor.Cell64(22) , 1045–1046 (1991).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haig D : Genomic imprinting and kinship: how good is the evidence?Ann. Rev. Genet.38 , 553–585 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eggermann T , SchönherrN, MeyerEet al.: Epigenetic mutations in 11p15 in Silver–Russell syndrome are restricted to the telomeric imprinting domain.J. Med. Genet.43(7) , 615–616 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holm V , CassidyS, ButlerMet al.: Prader–Willi syndrome: consensus diagnostic criteria.Pediatrics91(2) , 398–402 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown W , ConsedineN: Just how happy is the happy puppet? An emotion signaling and kinship theory perspective on the behavioral phenotype of children with Angelman syndrome.Med. Hypotheses63 , 377–385 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angelman H : ‘Puppet‘ children: a report on three cases.Devel. Med. Child Neurol.7 , 681–688 (1965).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls R , SaitohS, HorsthemkeB: Imprinting in Prader–Willi and Angelman syndromes.Trends Genet.14(5) , 194–200 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veltman M , ThompsonR, RobertsS, ThomasN, WhittingtonJ, BoltonP: Prader–Willi syndrome – a study comparing deletion and uniparental disomy cases with reference to autism spectrum disorders.Euro. Child Adol. Psych.13(1) , 42–50 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milner K , CraigE, ThompsonRet al.: Prader–Willi syndrome: intellectual abilities and behavioral features by genetic subtype.J. Child Psychol. Psych.46(10) , 1089–1096 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whittington J , HollandT: Prader–Willi Syndrome: Development and Manifestations. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Steffenburg S , GillbergC, SteffenburgU, KyllermanM: Autism in Angelman syndrome: a population-based study.Pediatric Neurol.14 , 131–136 (1996).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonati M , RussoS, FinelliPet al.: Evaluation of autism traits in Angelman syndrome: a resource to unfold autism genes.Neurogenetics8 , 169–178 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veltman M , CraigE, BoltonP: Autism spectrum disorders in Prader–Willi and Angelman syndromes: a systematic review.Psychiatric Genetics15 , 243–254 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kent L , BowdinS, KirbyG, CooperW, MaherE: Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome: a behavioral phenotype–genotype study.Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsy. Genet.147B(7) , 1295–1297 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baird G , SimonoffE, PicklesAet al.: Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum in a population cohort of children in South Thames: the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP).Lancet368 , 210–215 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crespi B , SummersK, DorusS: Genomic sister-disorders of neurodevelopment: an evolutionary approach.Evolutionary Applications2(1) , 81–100 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haig D : Intragenomic politics.Cytogen. Genome Res.113 , 68–74 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen N , LoganK, LallyG, DrageJ, NorrisM, KeverneB: Distribution of parthenogenetic cells in the mouse brain and their influence on brain development and behavior.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA92(23) , 10782–10786 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregg C , ZhangJ, WeissbourdBet al.: High-resolution analysis of parent-of-origin allelic expression in the mouse brain.Science329 , 643–648 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keverne E , FundeleR, NarasimhaM, BartonS, SuraniM: Genomic imprinting and the differential roles of parental genomes in brain development.Devel. Brain Res.92 , 91–100 (1996).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hannah J , HaywardB, SheridanE, BonthronD: A global disorder of imprinting in the human female germ line.Nature416 , 539–542 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newton G : The case of the biparental mole.Wellcome News (27) , 18–19 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Maclean P : Limbic System. In: The Blackwell Dictionary of Neuropsychology. Beaumont J, Kenealy P, Rogers M (Eds). Blackwell, Oxford, UK (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Goos L , SilvermanI: The inheritance of cognitive skills: does genomic imprinting play a role?Neurogenetics20(1–2) , 19–40 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendrek A : Reversal of normal cerebral sexual dimorphism in schizophrenia: evidence and speculations.Med. Hypotheses69(4) , 896–902 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur R , KohlerC, TuretskyBet al.: A sexually dimorphic ratio of orbitofrontal to amygdala volume is altered in schizophrenia.Biol. Psych.55 , 512–517 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones D : Killer instincts.Nature451 , 512–515 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur R , Gunning-DixonF, BilkerW, GurR: Sex difference in temporo-limbic and frontal brain volumes of healthy adults.Cereb. Cortex12 , 998 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein J , SeidmanL, HortonN, MakrisN, KennedyD: Normal sexual dimorphism of the adult human brain assessed by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging.Cereb. Cortex11 , 490–497 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ledoux J : The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life. Simon & Schuster, New York, USA (1996).
   Google Scholar
• Chorney M , ChorneyK, SeeseNet al.: A quantitative trait locus associated with cognitive ability in children.Psychol. Sci.9(3) , 1–7 (1998).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Killian J , NolanC, WylieAet al.: Divergent evolution in M6P/IGF2R imprinting from the Jurassic to the Quaternary.Hum. Mol. Genet.10 , 1721–1728 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron-Cohen S : The extreme male brain theory of autism.Trends Cognit. Sci.6(6) , 248–254 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron-Cohen S , AshwinE, AshwinC, TavassoliT, ChakrabartiB: Talent in autism: hyper-systemizing, hyper-attention to detail and sensory hypersensitivity.Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. B364 , 1377–1383 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badcock C : Mentalism and mechanism: the twin modes of human cognition. In: Evolutionary Psychology, Public Policy and Personal Decisions. Crawford C, Salmon C (Eds). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, USA, 99–116 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Baron-Cohen S : The empathizing system. In: Origins Of The Social Mind. Ellis B, Bjorklund D (Eds). The Guilford Press, NY, USA and London, UK, 468–492 (2005).
   Google Scholar
• Baron-Cohen S , KnickmeyerR, BelmonteM: Sex differences in the brain: implications for explaining autism.Science310 , 819–823 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trivers R : Parent–offspring conflict.Am. Zoologist14 , 249–264 (1974).
   Google Scholar
• Crespi B : Sly FOXP2: genomic conflict in the evolution of language.Trends Ecol. Evol.22(4) , 174–175 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown W : The parental antagonism theory of language evolution: preliminary evidence for the proposal.Hum. Biol.83(2) , 213–245 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murdock P : Ethnographic Atlas. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA, USA (1967).
   Google Scholar
• Haig D : Genetic conflicts of pregnancy and childhood. In: Evolution in Health and Disease. Stearns S (Ed.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 77–90 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Lathe R : Autism, Brain, and Environment. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London, UK and Philadelphia, USA (2006).
   Google Scholar
• Maestro S , MuratoriM, CavallaroF, PeiD, SternB, Palacio-EspasaF: Attentional skills during the first 6 months of age in autism spectrum disorder.J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry41 , 1239–1245 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zwaigenbaum L , BrysonS, RogersT, RobertsW, BrianJ, SzatmariP: Behavioral manifestations of autism in the first year of life.Int. J. Devel. Neurosci.23 , 143–152 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mcnamara P , MclarenD, SmithD, BrownA, StickgoldR: A ‘Jekyll and Hyde‘ within: aggressive versus friendly interactions in rem and non-REM dreams.Psychol. Sci.16(2) , 130–136 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson G , Jacobs-StannardA, ChawarskaK, VolkmarF, KlimanH: Placental trophoblast inclusions in autism spectrum disorder.Biol. Psych.6 , 487–491 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Mills J , HedigerM, MolloyCet al.: Elevated levels of growth-related hormones in autism and autism spectrum disorder.Clin. Endocrinol.67 , 230–237 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugie Y , SugieH, FukudaT, ItoM: Neonatal factors in infants with autistic disorder and typically developing infants.Autism9(5) , 487–494 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingudomnukul E , Baron-CohenS, WheelwrightS, KnickmeyerR: Elevated rates of testosterone-related disorders in women with autism spectrum conditions.Hormones Behav.51(5) , 597–604 (2007).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knickmeyer R , Baron-CohenS, RaggattP, TaylorK: Foetal testosterone, social relationships, and restricted interests in children.J. Child Psychol. Psych.45 , 1–13 (2004).
   Google Scholar
• Brosnan M , AshwinC, WalkerI, DonaghueJ: Can an ‘extreme female brain‘ be characterised in terms of psychosis?Person. Individ. Diff.49 , 738–742 (2010).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter H , CiaramidaroA, AdenzatoMet al.: Dysfunction of the social brain in schizophrenia is modulated by intention type: an fMRI study.Soc. Cog. Affect. Neurosci.4(2) , 166–176 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bara B , CiaramidaroA, WalterH, AdenzatoM: Intentional minds: a philosophical analysis of intention tested through fMRI experiments involving people with schizophrenia, people with autism, and healthy individuals.Front. Hum. Neurosci.2(5) , 7 (2011).
   Google Scholar
• Fertuck E , JekalA, SongIet al.: Enhanced ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes‘ in borderline personality disorder compared with healthy controls.Psychol. Med.39(12) , 1979–1988 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franzen N , HagenhoffM, BaerNet al.: Superior ‘theory of mind‘ in borderline personality disorder: an analysis of interaction behavior in a virtual trust game.Psychiatry Res.187(1–2) , 224–233 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell-Smith S , MayberyM, BaylissD: Are the autism and positive schizotypy spectra diametrically opposed in local versus global processing?J. Autism Devel. Dis.40(8) , 968–977 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinawi M , LiuP, LupskiJ: Recurrent reciprocal 16p11.2 rearrangements associated with global developmental delay, behavioral problems, dysmorphism, epilepsy, and abnormal head size.J. Med. Genet.47(5) , 332–341 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamminga C , HolcombH: Phenotype of schizophrenia: a review and formulation.Mol. Psychiatry10 , 27–39 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crow T : Is schizophrenia the price that Homo sapiens pays for language?Schizophrenia Res.28 , 127–141 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horrobin D : Schizophrenia: the illness that made us human.Med. Hypotheses50 , 269–288 (1998).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crespi B , SummersK, DorusS: Adaptive evolution of genes underlying schizophrenia.Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.274 , 2801–2810 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Happé F , FrithU: Autism and talent.Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. B364(1522) , 1343–1480 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toulopoulou T , Mapua-FilbeyF, QuraishiSet al.: Cognitive performance in presumed obligate carriers for psychosis.Br. J. Psych.187 , 284–285 (2006).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kravariti E , ToulopoulouT, Mapua-FilbeyFet al.: Intellectual asymmetry and genetic liability in first-degree relatives of probands with schizophrenia.Br. J. Psych.188 , 186–187 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhai J , ZhangQ, ChengLet al.: Risk variants in the S100B gene, associated with elevated S100B levels, are also associated with visuospatial disability of schizophrenia.Behav. Brain Res.217(2) , 363–368 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron-Cohen S , WheelwrightS, StottC, BoltonP, GoodyerI: Is there a link between engineering and autism?Autism1(1) , 101–109 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Heijmansa B , TobiaE, SteinAet al.: Persistent epigenetic differences associated with prenatal exposure to famine in humans.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci.105(44) , 17046–17049 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward P : Birth Weight and Economic Growth. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA and London, UK (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Gillberg C : Autism and autistic-like conditions: subclasses among disorders of empathy, (The Emanuel Miller Memorial Lecture 1991).J. Child Psychol. Psych.33(5) , 813–842 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Der G , GuptaS, MurrayR: Is schizophrenia disappearing?Lancet335 , 513–516 (1990).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woogh C : Is schizophrenia on the decline in Canada?Canadian J. Psych.46 , 61–67 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Raison C , LowryC, RookG: Inflammation, sanitation, and consternation: loss of contact with coevolved, tolerogenic microorganisms and the pathophysiology and treatment of major depression.Arch. Gen. Psych.67(12) , 1211–1224 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster J , LambertonP, DonnellyC, TorreyE: Parasites as causative agents of human affective disorders? The impact of anti-psychotic, mood-stabilizer and anti-parasite medication on Toxoplasma gondii‘s ability to alter host behavior.Proc. Biol. Sci.273(1589) , 1023–1030 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yolken R , TorreyE: Are some cases of psychosis caused by microbial agents? A review of the evidence.Mol. Psych.13 , 470–479 (2008).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodier P : The early origins of autism.Sci. Am.282(2) , 56–63 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen A , RauchT, PfeiferG, HuV: Global methylation profiling of lymphoblastoid cell lines reveals epigenetic contributions to autism spectrum disorders and a novel autism candidate gene, RORA, whose protein product is reduced in autistic brain.FASEB J.24(8) , 3036–3051 (2010).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarachana T , XuM, Wu R-C, Hu V: Sex hormones in autism: androgens and estrogens differentially and reciprocally regulate RORA, a novel candidate gene for autism. PLoS ONE6(2) , e17116 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ressler K , MercerK, BradleyBet al.: Post-traumatic stress disorder is associated with PACAP and the PAC1 receptor.Nature470(7335) , 492–497 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau N : The epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder.J. Clin. Psych.62(17) , 16–22 (2001).
   Google Scholar
• Dawkins R : The Selfish Gene. (Second Edition). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK (1989).
   Google Scholar

▪ Website

• The Imprinted Brain Website www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-imprinted-brain
   Google Scholar