Adverse Maternal Exposures, Methylation of Glucocorticoid-Related Genes and Perinatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review

References

• Barker D , BarkerM , FlemingT , LamplM . Developmental biology: support mothers to secure future public health . Nature504 ( 7479 ), 209 – 211 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker DJ . The fetal and infant origins of adult disease . BMJ301 ( 6761 ), 1111 ( 1990 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao Y , GongX , ChenLet al. Site-specific methylation of placental HSD11B2 gene promoter is related to intrauterine growth restriction . Eur. J. Hum. Genet.22 ( 6 ), 734 – 740 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conradt E , LesterBM , AppletonAA , ArmstrongDA , MarsitCJ . The roles of DNA methylation of NR3C1 and 11beta-HSD2 and exposure to maternal mood disorder in utero on newborn neurobehavior . Epigenetics8 ( 12 ), 1321 – 1329 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake AJ , McPhersonRC , GodfreyKMet al. An unbalanced maternal diet in pregnancy associates with offspring epigenetic changes in genes controlling glucocorticoid action and foetal growth . Clin. Endocrinol.77 ( 6 ), 808 – 815 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulligan CJ , D’ErricoNC , SteesJ , HughesDA . Methylation changes at NR3C1 in newborns associate with maternal prenatal stress exposure and newborn birth weight . Epigenetics7 ( 8 ), 853 – 857 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberlander TF , WeinbergJ , PapsdorfM , GrunauR , MisriS , DevlinAM . Prenatal exposure to maternal depression, neonatal methylation of human glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) and infant cortisol stress responses . Epigenetics3 ( 2 ), 97 – 106 ( 2008 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Entringer S , BussC , WadhwaPD . Prenatal stress, development, health and disease risk: a psychobiological perspective-2015 Curt Richter Award Paper . Psychoneuroendocrinology62 , 366 – 375 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Champagne FA . Early environments, glucocorticoid receptors, and behavioral epigenetics . Behav. Neurosci.127 ( 5 ), 628 – 636 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGowan PO . Epigenomic mechanisms of early adversity and HPA dysfunction: considerations for PTSD research . Front. Psych.4 , 110 ( 2013 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tomlinson JW , WalkerEA , BujalskaIJet al. 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1: a tissue-specific regulator of glucocorticoid response . Endocr. Rev.25 ( 5 ), 831 – 866 ( 2004 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohacek J , MansuyIM . Epigenetic inheritance of disease and disease risk . Neuropsychopharmacology38 ( 1 ), 220 – 236 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Relationships G-P . NR3C1 nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 1 . OMIM ( 2015 ). www.omim.org/entry/138040 .
   Google Scholar
• Turner JD , MullerCP . Structure of the glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1) gene 5′ untranslated region: identification, and tissue distribution of multiple new human exon 1 . J. Mol. Endocrinol.35 ( 2 ), 283 – 292 ( 2005 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melas PA , WeiY , WongCCet al. Genetic and epigenetic associations of MAOA and NR3C1 with depression and childhood adversities . Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol.16 ( 7 ), 1513 – 1528 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dammann G , TeschlerS , HaagT , AltmullerF , TuczekF , DammannRH . Increased DNA methylation of neuropsychiatric genes occurs in borderline personality disorder . Epigenetics6 ( 12 ), 1454 – 1462 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiger H , LabonteB , GroleauP , TureckiG , IsraelM . Methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter in bulimic women: associations with borderline personality disorder, suicidality, and exposure to childhood abuse . Int. J. Eat Disorder46 ( 3 ), 246 – 255 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lind GE , KleiviK , MelingGIet al. ADAMTS1, CRABP1, and NR3C1 identified as epigenetically deregulated genes in colorectal tumorigenesis . Cell. Oncol.28 ( 5–6 ), 259 – 272 ( 2006 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kay P , SchlossmacherG , MatthewsLet al. Loss of glucocorticoid receptor expression by DNA methylation prevents glucocorticoid induced apoptosis in human small cell lung cancer cells . PLoS ONE6 ( 10 ), e24839 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tannin GM , AgarwalA , MonderC , NewMI , WhiteP . The human gene for 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Structure, tissue distribution, and chromosomal localization . J. Biol. Chem.266 ( 25 ), 16653 – 16658 ( 1991 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman K , HolmesM , SecklJ . 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases: intracellular gate-keepers of tissue glucocorticoid action . Physiol. Rev.93 ( 3 ), 1139 – 1206 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benediktsson R , BrennandJ , TibiL , CalderAA , SecklJR , EdwardsCR . Fetal osteocalcin levels are related to placental 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in humans . Clin. Endocrinol.42 ( 5 ), 551 – 555 ( 1995 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Mil NH , Bouwland-BothMI , StolkLet al. Determinants of maternal pregnancy one-carbon metabolism and newborn human DNA methylation profiles . Reproduction148 ( 6 ), 581 – 592 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lesseur C , PaquetteAG , MarsitCJ . Epigenetic regulation of infant neurobehavioral outcomes . Med. Epigen.2 ( 2 ), 71 – 79 ( 2014 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen P , JiangT , OuyangJ , CuiY , ChenY . Epigenetic programming of diverse glucocorticoid response and inflammatory/immune-mediated disease . Med. Hypotheses73 ( 5 ), 657 – 658 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radtke KM , RufM , GunterHMet al. Transgenerational impact of intimate partner violence on methylation in the promoter of the glucocorticoid receptor . Transl. Psychiatry1 , e21 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daskalakis NP , YehudaR . Site-specific methylation changes in the glucocorticoid receptor exon 1F promoter in relation to life adversity: systematic review of contributing factors . Front. Neurosci.8 , 369 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palma-Gudiel H , Cordova-PalomeraA , EixarchE , DeuschleM , FananasL . Maternal psychosocial stress during pregnancy alters the epigenetic signature of the glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter in their offspring: a meta-analysis . Epigenetics10 ( 10 ), 893 – 902 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palma-Gudiel H , Cordova-PalomeraA , LezaJC , FananasL . Glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) methylation processes as mediators of early adversity in stress-related disorders causality: a critical review . Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.55 , 520 – 535 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liberati A , AltmanDG , TetzlaffJet al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate healthcare interventions: explanation and elaboration . BMJ339 , b2700 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wain HM , BrufordEA , LoveringRC , LushMJ , WrightMW , PoveyS . Guidelines for human gene nomenclature . Genomics79 ( 4 ), 464 – 470 ( 2002 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green BB , ArmstrongDA , LesseurCet al. The role of placental 11-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and type 2 methylation on gene expression and infant birth weight . Biol. Reprod.92 ( 6 ), 149 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroud LR , PapandonatosGD , RodriguezDet al. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and infant stress response: test of a prenatal programming hypothesis . Psychoneuroendocrinology48 , 29 – 40 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsit CJ , MaccaniMA , PadburyJF , LesterBM . Placental 11-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase methylation is associated with newborn growth and a measure of neurobehavioral outcome . PLoS ONE7 ( 3 ), e33794 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appleton AA , LesterBM , ArmstrongDA , LesseurC , MarsitCJ . Examining the joint contribution of placental NR3C1 and HSD11β2 methylation for infant neurobehavior . Psychoneuroendocrinology52C , 32 – 42 ( 2014 ).
   Google Scholar
• Appleton AA , ArmstrongDA , LesseurCet al. Patterning in placental 11-B hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase methylation according to prenatal socioeconomic adversity . PLoS ONE8 ( 9 ), e74691 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burris HH , BraunJM , ByunHMet al. Association between birth weight and DNA methylation of IGF2, glucocorticoid receptor and repetitive elements LINE-1 and Alu . Epigenomics5 ( 3 ), 271 – 281 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hompes T , IzziB , GellensEet al. Investigating the influence of maternal cortisol and emotional state during pregnancy on the DNA methylation status of the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) promoter region in cord blood . J. Psychiatr. Res.47 ( 7 ), 880 – 891 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filiberto AC , MaccaniMA , KoestlerDet al. Birthweight is associated with DNA promoter methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human placenta . Epigenetics6 ( 5 ), 566 – 572 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Hajj N , PliushchG , SchneiderEet al. Metabolic programming of MEST DNA methylation by intrauterine exposure to gestational diabetes mellitus . Diabetes62 ( 4 ), 1320 – 1328 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogg K , BlairJD , McfaddenDE , Von DadelszenP , RobinsonWP . Early onset pre-eclampsia is associated with altered DNA methylation of cortisol-signalling and steroidogenic genes in the placenta . PLoS ONE8 ( 5 ), e62969 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu W , WangH , HuangH . Analysis of gene expression and preliminary study of methylation about 11beta-HSD2 gene in placentas of Chinese pre-eclampsia patients of Han ethnicity . J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res.41 ( 3 ), 343 – 349 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang X , YanJ , WestAAet al. Maternal choline intake alters the epigenetic state of fetal cortisol-regulating genes in humans . FASEB J.26 ( 8 ), 3563 – 3574 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bromer C , MarsitCJ , ArmstrongDA , PadburyJF , LesterB . Genetic and epigenetic variation of the glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1) in placenta and infant neurobehavior . Dev. Neurosci.55 ( 7 ), 673 – 683 ( 2013 ).
   Google Scholar
• Hu W , WangH , HuangH . Analysis of gene expression and preliminary study of methylation about 11beta-HSD2 gene in placentas of Chinese pre-eclampsia patients of Han ethnicity . J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res.41 ( 3 ), 343 – 349 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao A , ChengY , LiXet al. Promoter hypomethylation of COMT in human placenta is not associated with the development of pre-eclampsia . Mol. Hum. Reprod.17 ( 3 ), 199 – 206 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dogan MV , LeiMK , BeachSR , BrodyGH , PhilibertRA . Alcohol and tobacco consumption alter hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis DNA methylation . Psychoneuroendocrinology66 , 176 – 184 ( 2016 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillman MW . Developmental origins of health and disease . N. Engl. J. Med.353 ( 17 ), 1848 ( 2005 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds RM . Glucocorticoid excess and the developmental origins of disease: two decades of testing the hypothesis – 2012 Curt Richter Award Winner . Psychoneuroendocrinology38 ( 1 ), 1 – 11 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burton GJ , FowdenAL . The placenta: a multifaceted, transient organ . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.370 ( 1663 ), 20140066 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Non AL , BinderAM , BaraultL , RancourtRC , KubzanskyLD , MichelsKB . DNA methylation of stress-related genes and LINE-1 repetitive elements across the healthy human placenta . Placenta33 ( 3 ), 183 – 187 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt TJ , BarnettCA , LitwackG . Activation of the glucocorticoid-receptor complex . J. Cell. Biochem.20 ( 1 ), 15 – 27 ( 1982 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammer F , StewartPM . Cortisol metabolism in hypertension . Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metabol.20 ( 3 ), 337 – 353 ( 2006 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Togher KL , TogherKL , O’KeeffeMMet al. Epigenetic regulation of the placental HSD11β2 barrier and its role as a critical regulator of fetal development . Epigenetics9 ( 6 ), 816 – 822 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEwen BS , EilandL , HunterRG , MillerMM . Stress and anxiety: structural plasticity and epigenetic regulation as a consequence of stress . Neuropharmacology62 ( 1 ), 3 – 12 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagot RC , MeaneyMJ . Epigenetics and the biological basis of gene × environment interactions . J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry49 ( 8 ), 752 – 771 ( 2010 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weder N , ZhangH , JensenKet al. Child abuse, depression, and methylation in genes involved with stress, neural plasticity, and brain circuitry . J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry53 ( 4 ), 417 – 424 , e415 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hochberg Z , FeilR , ConstanciaMet al. Child health, developmental plasticity, and epigenetic programming . Endocr. Rev.32 ( 2 ), 159 – 224 ( 2011 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monk D . Genomic imprinting in the human placenta . Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.213 ( Suppl. 4 ), S152 – S162 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morison IM , ReeveAE . A catalogue of imprinted genes and parent-of-origin effects in humans and animals . Hum. Mol. Genet.7 ( 10 ), 1599 – 1609 ( 1998 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaiserman AM . Epigenetic programming by early-life stress: evidence from human populations . Dev. Dyn.244 ( 3 ), 254 – 265 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vickers MH . Early life nutrition, epigenetics and programming of later life disease . Nutrients6 ( 6 ), 2165 – 2178 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin-Blanco A , FerrerM , SolerJet al. Association between methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene, childhood maltreatment, and clinical severity in borderline personality disorder . J. Psychiatr. Res.57 , 34 – 40 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romens SE , McDonaldJ , SvarenJ , PollakSD . Associations between early life stress and gene methylation in children . Child Dev.86 ( 1 ), 303 – 309 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda R , DaskalakisNP , LehrnerAet al. Influences of maternal and paternal PTSD on epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in Holocaust survivor offspring . Am. J. Psychiatry171 ( 8 ), 872 – 880 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perroud N , RutembesaE , Paoloni-GiacobinoAet al. The Tutsi genocide and transgenerational transmission of maternal stress: epigenetics and biology of the HPA axis . World J. Biol. Psychiatry15 ( 4 ), 334 – 345 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lester BM , TronickEZ . The neonatal intensive care unit network neurobehavioral scale procedures . Pediatrics113 ( Suppl. 2 ), 641 – 667 ( 2004 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lester BM , ConradtE , MarsitCJ . Are epigenetic changes in the intrauterine environment related to newborn neurobehavior?Epigenomics6 ( 2 ), 175 – 178 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pereira C , MonteiroR , ConstaânciaM , MartinsMJ . 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases in the regulation of tissue glucocorticoid availability . In : Steroids – From Physiology to Clinical Medicine . OstojicSM ( Ed. ). InTech ( 2012 ).
   Google Scholar
• Zhao Y , GongX , ChenLet al. Site-specific methylation of placental HSD11β2 gene promoter is related to intrauterine growth restriction . Eur. J. Hum. Genet.22 ( 6 ), 734 – 740 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMillen IC , MacLaughlinSM , MuhlhauslerBS , GentiliS , DuffieldJL , MorrisonJL . Developmental origins of adult health and disease: the role of periconceptional and foetal nutrition . Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol.102 ( 2 ), 82 – 89 ( 2008 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouwland-Both MI , Van MilNH , StolkLet al. DNA methylation of IGF2DMR and H19 is associated with fetal and infant growth: the generation R study . PLoS ONE8 ( 12 ), e81731 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nesset KA , PerriAM , MuellerCR . Frequent promoter hypermethylation and expression reduction of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in breast tumors . Epigenetics9 ( 6 ), 851 – 859 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogg K , RobinsonWP , BeristainAG . Activation of endocrine-related gene expression in placental choriocarcinoma cell lines following DNA methylation knock-down . Mol. Hum. Reprod.20 ( 7 ), 677 – 689 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friso S , PizzoloF , ChoiSWet al. Epigenetic control of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2 gene promoter is related to human hypertension . Atherosclerosis199 ( 2 ), 323 – 327 ( 2008 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pizzolo F , FrisoS , MorandiniFet al. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess by a novel mutation and epigenetic modulation by HSD11β2 promoter methylation . J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.100 ( 9 ), E1234 – E1241 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biemont C . From genotype to phenotype. What do epigenetics and epigenomics tell us?Heredity (Edinb.)105 ( 1 ), 1 – 3 ( 2010 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boks MP , DerksEM , WeisenbergerDJet al. The relationship of DNA methylation with age, gender and genotype in twins and healthy controls . PLoS ONE4 ( 8 ), e6767 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Eijk KR , De JongS , BoksMPet al. Genetic analysis of DNA methylation and gene expression levels in whole blood of healthy human subjects . BMC Genomics13 , 636 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake AJ , O’ShaughnessyPJ , BhattacharyaSet al. In utero exposure to cigarette chemicals induces sex-specific disruption of one-carbon metabolism and DNA methylation in the human fetal liver . BMC Med.13 , 18 ( 2015 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strehl C , ButtgereitF . Optimized glucocorticoid therapy: teaching old drugs new tricks . Mol. Cell Endocrinol.380 ( 1–2 ), 32 – 40 ( 2013 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhen T , CidlowskiJA . Anti-inflammatory action of glucocorticoids – new mechanisms for old drugs . N. Engl. J. Med.353 ( 16 ), 1711 – 1723 ( 2005 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agarwal AK , RogersonFM , MuneT , WhitePC . Gene structure and chromosomal localization of the human HSD11K gene encoding the kidney (type 2) isozyme of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase . Genomics29 ( 1 ), 195 – 199 ( 1995 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moser D , MolitorA , KumstaR , TatschnerT , RiedererP , MeyerJ . The glucocorticoid receptor gene exon 1-F promoter is not methylated at the NGFI-A binding site in human hippocampus . World J. Biol. Psychiatry8 ( 4 ), 262 – 268 ( 2007 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weaver ICG , CervoniN , ChampagneFAet al. Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior . Nat. Neurosci.7 ( 8 ), 847 – 854 ( 2004 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y , JeltschA . The application of next generation sequencing in DNA methylation analysis . Genes (Basel)1 ( 1 ), 85 – 101 ( 2010 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong DA , LesseurC , ConradtE , LesterBM , MarsitCJ . Global and gene-specific DNA methylation across multiple tissues in early infancy: implications for children’s health research . FASEB J.28 ( 5 ), 2088 – 2097 ( 2014 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghosh S , YatesAJ , FruhwaldMC , MiecznikowskiJC , PlassC , SmiragliaD . Tissue specific DNA methylation of CpG islands in normal human adult somatic tissues distinguishes neural from non-neural tissues . Epigenetics5 ( 6 ), 527 – 538 ( 2010 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song F , MahmoodS , GhoshSet al. Tissue specific differentially methylated regions (TDMR): changes in DNA methylation during development . Genomics93 ( 2 ), 130 – 139 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witzmann SR , TurnerJD , MeriauxSB , MeijerOC , MullerCP . Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor promoter1(7) in adult rats . Epigenetics7 ( 11 ), 1290 – 1301 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang P , SongF , GhoshSet al. Genome-wide survey reveals dynamic widespread tissue-specific changes in DNA methylation during development . BMC Genomics12 ( 1 ), 231 ( 2011 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murphy SK , HuangZ , HoyoC . Differentially methylated regions of imprinted genes in prenatal, perinatal and postnatal human tissues . PLoS ONE7 ( 7 ), e40924 ( 2012 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irizarry RA , Ladd-AcostaC , WenBet al. The human colon cancer methylome shows similar hypo- and hypermethylation at conserved tissue-specific CpG island shores . Nat. Genet.41 ( 2 ), 178 – 186 ( 2009 ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin KA . Study design VII. Randomised controlled trials . Evid. Based Dent.8 ( 1 ), 22 – 23 ( 2007 ).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar