Parallels in the Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 and M. Tuberculosis: a synergistic or Antagonistic Alliance?

References

• Yan R , ZhangY , LiY , XiaL , GuoY , ZhouQ. Structural basis for the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 by full-length human ACE2. Science367, 1444–1448 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng J . SARS-CoV-2: an emerging coronavirus that causes a global threat. Int. J. Biol. Sci.16(10), 1678–1685 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung IF , LungK , TsoEYet al. Articles Triple combination of interferon beta-1b, lopinavir – ritonavir, and ribavirin in the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: an open-label, randomised, Phase II trial. Lancet6736(20), 1–10 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Yang P , WangX. COVID-19: a new challenge for human beings. Cell. Mol. Immunol.17(5), 555–557 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y , WangY , ChenY , QinQ. Unique epidemiological and clinical features of the emerging 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) implicate special control measures. J. Med. Virol.92(6), 568–576 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demes L . Doctor’ s note: coronavirus and patients with TB and HIV poor socioeconomic conditions (2020). http://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/4/8/doctors-note-coronavirus-and-patients-with-tb-and-hiv
   Google Scholar
• WHO . Global Tuberculosis Report 2019 New data on tuberculosis trends in 202 countries. http://www.who.int/tb/global-report-2019
   Google Scholar
• Hoffmann M , Kleine-WeberH , SchroederS , MullerMA , DrostenC , PohlmannS. SARS-CoV-2 Cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell181, 271–280 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walls AC , ParkYJ , TortoriciMA , WallA , McGuireAT , VeeslerD. Structure, function and antigenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein. Cell181(2), 281–292.e6 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shang J , WanY , LuoCet al. Cell entry mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA117(21), 11727–11734 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason RJ . Pathogenesis of COVID-19 from a cell biology perspective. Eur. Respir. J.55(2000607), 9–11 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Abassi Z , KnaneyY , KarramT , HeymanSN. The lung macrophage in SARS-CoV-2 infection: a friend or a foe?Front. Immunol.11(June), 1–5 (2020).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bowdish DME , SakamotoK , KimMJet al. MARCO, TLR2 and CD14 are required for macrophage cytokine responses to mycobacterial trehalose dimycolate and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PLoS Pathog.5(6), 1–14 (2009).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganbat D , SeehaseS , RichterEet al. Mycobacteria infect different cell types in the human lung and cause species dependent cellular changes in infected cells. BMC Pulm. Med.16(1), 1–16 (2016).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hossain MM , NorazmiMN. Pattern recognition receptors and cytokines in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection - the double-edged sword?Biomed. Res. Int.2013, 1–18 (2013).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell DG . Mycobacterium tuberculosis: here today, and here tomorrow. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol.2, 1–9 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinky L , González-parraG , DobrovolnyHM. Superinfection and cell regeneration can lead to chronic viral coinfections Lubna. J. Theor. Biol.466, 24–38 (2019).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merad M , MartinJC. Pathological inflammation in patients with COVID-19: a key role for monocytes and macrophages. Nat. Rev. Immunol.20, 355–362 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coperchini F , ChiovatoL , CroceL , MagriF , RotondiM. The cytokine storm in COVID-19: an overview of the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev.53, 25–32 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu B , LiM , ZhouZ , GuanX , XiangY. Can we use interleukin-6 (IL-6) blockade for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-induced cytokine release syndrome (CRS)?J. Autoimmun.102452, 0896–8411 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Xie P , MaW , TangH , LiuD. Severe COVID-19: a review of recent progress with a look toward the future. Front. Public Health8(189), 1–7 (2020).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Etna MP , GiacominiE , SeveraM , CocciaEM. Pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines in tuberculosis: a two-edged sword in TB pathogenesis. Semin. Immunol.26(6), 543–551 (2014).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flesch IEA , KaufmannSHE. Role of cytokines in tuberculosis. Immunobiology189(3–4), 316–339 (1993).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng M , GaoY , WangGet al. Functional exhaustion of antiviral lymphocytes in COVID-19 patients. Int. J. Infect. Dis.17(5), 533–535 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Zhao Q , MengM , KumarRet al. Lymphopenia is associated with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Infect. Dis.96, 131–135 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan L , WangQ , ZhangDet al. Lymphopenia predicts disease severity of COVID-19: a descriptive and predictive study. Signal Transduct. Target Ther.5(1), 16–18 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-aska AI , Al-anaziAR , Al-subaeiSSet al. CD4+ T-lymphopenIa in HIV negative tuberculosis patients at King Khalid University hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Eur. J. Med. Res.16(6), 285–288 (2011).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman S , GudettaB , FinkJet al. Compartmentalization of immune responses in human tuberculosis: Few CD8+ effector T cells but elevated levels of FoxP3+ regulatory T cells in the granulomatous lesions. Am. J. Pathol.174(6), 2211–2224 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fehri SM , RacilH , HabibechSet al. Lymphocytopenia in pulmonary tuberculosis: does it have a clinical value? Eur. Respir. J. 48, PA2667 (2016).
   Google Scholar
• Etna MP , GiacominiE , SeveraM , CocciaEM. Pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines in tuberculosis: a two-edged sword in TB pathogenesis. Semin. Immunol.26(6), 543–551 (2014).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vizcarra P , Pérez-ElíasMJ , QueredaCet al. Description of COVID-19 in HIV-infected individuals: a single-centre, prospective cohort. Lancet HIV3018(20), 1–11 (2020).
   Google Scholar
• Salem A , NofalA , HosnyD. Treatment of common and plane warts in children with topical viable Bacillus Calmette–Guerin. Pediatr. Dermatol.30(1), 60–63 (2013).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roland M . The immunopathology of tuberculosis, the mode of action of the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin, of the tuberculin and of the immunotherapy. BBRJ3, 67–76 (2019).
   Google Scholar
• WHO . Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination and COVID-19 (2020). http://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/bacille-calmette-guérin-(bcg)-vaccination-and-covid-19
   Google Scholar
• Moorlag SJCFM , ArtsRJW , van CrevelR , NeteaMG. Nonspecific effects of BCG vaccine on viral infections. Clin. Microbiol. Infect.25(12), 1473–1478 (2019).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinnijenhuis J , QuintinJ , PreijersFet al. Long-lasting effects of BCG vaccination on both heterologous th1/th17 responses and innate trained immunity. J. Innate. Immun.6(2), 152–158 (2014).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Netea MG , JoostenLAB , LatzEet al. Trained immunity: a program of innate immune memory in health and disease. Science352(6284), 427 (2016).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Neill LAJ , NeteaMG. BCG-induced trained immunity: can it offer protection against COVID-19?Nat. Rev. Immunol.20(6), 335–337 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urashima M , OtaniK , HasegawaY , AkutsuT. BCG vaccination and mortality of COVID-19 across 173 countries: an ecological study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health17(15), 1–20 (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickramasinghe D , WickramasingheN , KamburugamuwaSA , ArambepolaC , SamarasekeraDN. Correlation between immunity from BCG and the morbidity and mortality of COVID-19. Trop. Dis. Travel Med. Vac.6(17), 1–15 (2020).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O'Neill LAJ , NeteaMG. BCG-induced trained immunity: can it offer protection against COVID-19?Nat. Rev. Immunol.20(6), 335–337 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta P , McAuleyDF , BrownM , SanchezE , TattersallRS , MansonJJ. COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet395(10229), 1033–1034 (2020).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar