References
- Siegel R , WardE, BrawleyO, JemalA. Cancer statistics, 2011: the impact of eliminating socioeconomic and racial disparities on premature cancer deaths.CA Cancer J. Clin.61, 212–236 (2011).
- Ferlay J , ParkinDM, Steliarova-FoucherE. Estimates of cancer incidence and mortality in Europe in 2008.Eur. J. Cancer46, 765–781 (2010).
- Attar RM , TakimotoCH, GottardisMM. Castration-resistant prostate cancer: locking up the molecular escape routes.Clin. Cancer Res.15, 3251–3255 (2009).
- Tannock IF , OsobaD, StocklerMRet al. Chemotherapy with mitoxantrone plus prednisone or prednisone alone for symptomatic hormone-resistant prostate cancer: a Canadian randomized trial with palliative end points. J. Clin. Oncol. 14, 1756–1764 (1996).
- Kantoff PW , HalabiS, ConawayMet al. Hydrocortisone with or without mitoxantrone in men with hormone-refractory prostate cancer: results of the cancer and leukemia group B 9182 study. J. Clin. Oncol. 17, 2506–2513 (1999).
- Tannock IF , de WitR, BerryWRet al. Docetaxel plus prednisone or mitoxantrone plus prednisone for advanced prostate cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 1502–1512 (2004).
- Petrylak DP , TangenCM, HussainMHet al. Docetaxel and estramustine compared with mitoxantrone and prednisone for advanced refractory prostate cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 1513–1520 (2004).
- de Bono JS , OudardS, OzgurogluMet al. Prednisone plus cabazitaxel or mitoxantrone for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer progressing after docetaxel treatment: a randomised open-label trial. Lancet 376, 1147–1154 (2010).
- de Bono JS , LogothetisCJ, MolinaAet al. Abiraterone and increased survival in metastatic prostate cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 1995–2005 (2011).
- Kantoff PW , HiganoCS, ShoreNDet al. Sipuleucel-T immunotherapy for castration-resistant prostate cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 363, 411–422 (2010).
- Scher HI , FizaziK, SaadFet al. Increased survival with enzalutamide in prostate cancer after chemotherapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 367(13), 1187–1197 (2012).
- Gavrilovic IT , PosnerJB. Brain metastases: epidemiology and pathophysiology.J. Neurooncol.75, 5–14 (2005).
- Barnholtz-Sloan JS , SloanAE, DavisFG, VigneauFD, LaiP, SawayaRE. Incidence proportions of brain metastases in patients diagnosed (1973 to 2001) in the Metropolitan Detroit Cancer Surveillance System.J. Clin. Oncol.22, 2865–2872 (2004).
- Schouten LJ , RuttenJ, HuveneersHA, TwijnstraA. Incidence of brain metastases in a cohort of patients with carcinoma of the breast, colon, kidney, and lung and melanoma.Cancer94, 2698–2705 (2002).
- Eichler AF , LoefflerJS. Multidisciplinary management of brain metastases.Oncologist12, 884–898 (2007).
- Talmadge JE , FidlerIJ. AACR centennial series: the biology of cancer metastasis: historical perspective.Cancer Res.70, 5649–5669 (2010).
- Paget S . The distribution of secondary growths in cancer of the breast.Lancet133, 571–573 (1889).
- Duda DG , DuyvermanAM, KohnoMet al. Malignant cells facilitate lung metastasis by bringing their own soil. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 21677–21682 (2010).
- Langley RR , FidlerIJ. The seed and soil hypothesis revisited – the role of tumor-stroma interactions in metastasis to different organs.Int. J. Cancer128, 2527–2535 (2011).
- Biddle A , MackenzieIC. Cancer stem cells and EMT in carcinoma.Cancer Metastasis Rev.31, 285–293 (2012).
- Chambers AF , GroomAC, MacDonaldIC. Dissemination and growth of cancer cells in metastatic sites.Nat. Rev. Cancer2, 563–572 (2002).
- Tremont-Lukats IW , BobustucG, LagosGK, LolasK, KyritsisAP, PuduvalliVK. Brain metastasis from prostate carcinoma: the M.D. Anderson Cancer Center experience.Cancer98, 363–368 (2003).
- Salvati M , FratiA, RussoNet al. Brain metastasis from prostate cancer. Report of 13 cases and critical analysis of the literature. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 24, 203–207 (2005).
- Krammer MJ , TomasinoA, SchulDB, AstnerST, MeierMP, LumentaCB. Modern management of rare brain metastases in adults.J. Neurooncol.105, 9–25 (2011).
- Hess KR , VaradhacharyGR, TaylorSHet al. Metastatic patterns in adenocarcinoma. Cancer 106, 1624–1633 (2006).
- Long MA , HusbandJE. Features of unusual metastases from prostate cancer.Br. J. Radiol.72, 933–941 (1999).
- Smedby KE , BrandtL, BacklundML, BlomqvistP. Brain metastases admissions in Sweden between 1987 and 2006.Br. J. Cancer101, 1919–1924 (2009).
- McCutcheon IE , EngDY, LogothetisCJ. Brain metastasis from prostate carcinoma: antemortem recognition and outcome after treatment.Cancer86, 2301–2311 (1999).
- Catane R , KaufmanJ, WestC, MerrinC, TsukadaY, MurphyGP. Brain metastasis from prostatic carcinoma.Cancer38, 2583–2587 (1976).
- Taylor HG , LefkowitzM, SkoogSJ, MilesBJ, McLeodDG, CogginJT. Intracranial metastases in prostate cancer.Cancer53, 2728–2730 (1984).
- Saitoh H , HidaM, ShimboT, NakamuraK, YamagataJ, SatohT. Metastatic patterns of prostatic cancer. Correlation between sites and number of organs involved.Cancer54, 3078–3084 (1984).
- Caffo O , GernoneA, OrtegaCet al. Central nervous system metastases from castration-resistant prostate cancer in the docetaxel era. J. Neurooncol. 107, 191–196 (2012).
- Caffo O , VecciaA, FellinGet al. Frequency of brain metastases from prostate cancer: an 18-year single-institution experience. J. Neurooncol. doi: 10.1007/s11060-012-0994-1 (2012) (Epub ahead of print).
- Stone KR , MickeyDD, WunderliH, MickeyGH, PaulsonDF. Isolation of a human prostate carcinoma cell line (DU 145).Int. J. Cancer21, 274–281 (1978).
- JuanYin J , TracyK, ZhangLet al. Noninvasive imaging of the functional effects of anti-VEGF therapy on tumor cell extravasation and regional blood volume in an experimental brain metastasis model. Clin. Exp. Metastasis 26, 403–414 (2009).
- Yin JJ , ZhangL, MunasingheJ, LinnoilaRI, KellyK. Cediranib/AZD2171 inhibits bone and brain metastasis in a preclinical model of advanced prostate cancer.Cancer Res.70, 8662–8673 (2010).
- Thudi NK , ShuST, MartinCKet al. Development of a brain metastatic canine prostate cancer cell line. Prostate 71, 1251–1263 (2011).
- Arnold SM , YoungAB, MunnRK, PatchellRA, NanayakkaraN, MarkesberyWR. Expression of p53, bcl-2, E-cadherin, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 in paired primary tumors and brain metastasis.Clin. Cancer Res.5, 4028–4033 (1999).
- Lee TH , AvrahamHK, JiangS, AvrahamS. Vascular endothelial growth factor modulates the transendothelial migration of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells through regulation of brain microvascular endothelial cell permeability.J. Biol. Chem.278, 5277–5284 (2003).
- Narla G , DifeoA, FernandezYet al. KLF6-SV1 overexpression accelerates human and mouse prostate cancer progression and metastasis. J. Clin. Invest. 118, 2711–2721 (2008).
- Perrone G , VincenziB, ZagamiMet al. Reelin expression in human prostate cancer: a marker of tumor aggressiveness based on correlation with grade. Mod. Pathol. 20, 344–351 (2007).
- Bendell JC , DomchekSM, BursteinHJet al. Central nervous system metastases in women who receive trastuzumab-based therapy for metastatic breast carcinoma. Cancer 97, 2972–2977 (2003).
- Duchnowska R , DziadziuszkoR, Czartoryska-ArlukowiczBet al. Risk factors for brain relapse in HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 117, 297–303 (2009).
- Signoretti S , MontironiR, ManolaJet al. Her-2-neu expression and progression toward androgen independence in human prostate cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 92, 1918–1925 (2000).
- Neto AS , Tobias-MachadoM, WroclawskiMLet al. Her-2/neu expression in prostate adenocarcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Urol. 184, 842–850 (2010).
- Domingo-Domenech J , FernandezPL, FilellaXet al. Serum HER2 extracellular domain predicts an aggressive clinical outcome and biological PSA response in hormone-independent prostate cancer patients treated with docetaxel. Ann. Oncol. 19, 269–275 (2008).
- Tobiume M , YamadaY, NakamuraKet al. Significant prognostic factor of immunohistochemical HER-2 expression using initial prostate biopsy specimens with M1b prostate cancer. Prostate 71, 385–393 (2011).
- Joos S , BergerheimUS, PanYet al. Mapping of chromosomal gains and losses in prostate cancer by comparative genomic hybridization. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 14, 267–276 (1995).
- Wullich B , RiedingerS, BrinckUet al. Evidence for gains at 15q and 20q in brain metastases of prostate cancer. Cancer Genet. Cytogenet. 154, 119–123 (2004).
- Slamon DJ , Leyland-JonesB, ShakSet al. Use of chemotherapy plus a monoclonal antibody against HER2 for metastatic breast cancer that overexpresses HER2. N. Engl. J. Med. 344, 783–792 (2001).
- Kirsch DG , LedezmaCJ, MathewsCSet al. Survival after brain metastases from breast cancer in the trastuzumab era. J. Clin. Oncol. 23, 2114–2116 (2005).
- Shao YY , LuLC, ChengAL, HsuCH. Increasing incidence of brain metastasis in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma in the era of antiangiogenic targeted therapy.Oncologist16, 82–86 (2011).
- Mongan JP , FadulCE, ColeBFet al. Brain metastases from colorectal cancer: risk factors, incidence, and the possible role of chemokines. Clin. Colorectal Cancer 8, 100–105 (2009).
- Martel CL , GumerlockPH, MeyersFJ, LaraPN. Current strategies in the management of hormone refractory prostate cancer.Cancer Treat. Rev.29, 171–187 (2003).
- Berthold DR , PondGR, SobanF, de WitR, EisenbergerM, TannockIF. Docetaxel plus prednisone or mitoxantrone plus prednisone for advanced prostate cancer: updated survival in the TAX 327 study.J. Clin. Oncol.26, 242–245 (2008).
- Oudard S , BanuE, MedioniJet al. What is the real impact of bone pain on survival in patients with metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer treated with docetaxel? BJU Int. 103, 1641–1646 (2009).
- Sartor AO , OudardS, OzgurogluMet al. Survival benefit from first docetaxel treatment for cabazitaxel plus prednisone compared with mitoxantrone plus prednisone in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) enrolled in the TROPIC trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 29(Suppl.), Abstract 4525 (2011).
- Goodman O , ChiKN, MolinaAet al. Exploratory analysis of survival benefit and prior docetaxel (D) treatment in COU-AA-301, a Phase III study of abiraterone acetate (AA) plus prednisone (P) in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). J. Clin. Oncol. 30(Suppl. 5), Abstract 15 (2012).
- Wolburg H , LippoldtA. Tight junctions of the blood–brain barrier: development, composition and regulation.Vascul. Pharmacol.38, 323–337 (2002).
- Pozzilli C , BernardiS, MansiLet al. Quantitative assessment of blood–brain barrier permeability in multiple sclerosis using 68-Ga-EDTA and positron emission tomography. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 51, 1058–1062 (1988).
- Zhang RD , PriceJE, FujimakiT, BucanaCD, FidlerIJ. Differential permeability of the blood–brain barrier in experimental brain metastases produced by human neoplasms implanted into nude mice.Am. J. Pathol.141, 1115–1124 (1992).
- Deeken JF , LoscherW. The blood–brain barrier and cancer: transporters, treatment, and Trojan horses.Clin. Cancer Res.13, 1663–1674 (2007).
- Regina A , DemeuleM, LaplanteAet al. Multidrug resistance in brain tumors: roles of the blood–brain barrier. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 20, 13–25 (2001).
- Genka S , DeutschJ, StahlePLet al. Brain and plasma pharmacokinetics and anticancer activities of cyclophosphamide and phosphoramide mustard in the rat. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 27, 1–7 (1990).
- Greig NH , SoncrantTT, ShettyHU, MommaS, SmithQR, RapoportSI. Brain uptake and anticancer activities of vincristine and vinblastine are restricted by their low cerebrovascular permeability and binding to plasma constituents in rat.Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol.26, 263–268 (1990).
- Romond EH , PerezEA, BryantJet al. Trastuzumab plus adjuvant chemotherapy for operable HER2-positive breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1673–1684 (2005).
- Piccart-Gebhart MJ , ProcterM, Leyland-JonesBet al. Trastuzumab after adjuvant chemotherapy in HER2-positive breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1659–1672 (2005).
- Lin NU , WinerEP. Brain metastases: the HER2 paradigm.Clin. Cancer Res.13, 1648–1655 (2007).
- Stemmler HJ , SchmittM, WillemsA, BernhardH, HarbeckN, HeinemannV. Ratio of trastuzumab levels in serum and cerebrospinal fluid is altered in HER2-positive breast cancer patients with brain metastases and impairment of blood–brain barrier.Anticancer Drugs18, 23–28 (2007).
- Pestalozzi BC , BrignoliS. Trastuzumab in CSF.J. Clin. Oncol.18, 2349–2351 (2000).
- Lin NU , BellonJR, WinerEP. CNS metastases in breast cancer.J. Clin. Oncol.22, 3608–3617 (2004).
- Siena S , CrinoL, DanovaMet al. Dose-dense temozolomide regimen for the treatment of brain metastases from melanoma, breast cancer, or lung cancer not amenable to surgery or radiosurgery: a multicenter Phase II study. Ann. Oncol. 21, 655–661 (2010).
- Ekenel M , HormigoAM, PeakS, DeAngelisLM, AbreyLE. Capecitabine therapy of central nervous system metastases from breast cancer.J. Neurooncol.85, 223–227 (2007).
- Lin NU , DierasV, PaulDet al. Multicenter Phase II study of lapatinib in patients with brain metastases from HER2-positive breast cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 15, 1452–1459 (2009).
- Sanson M , NapolitanoM, YayaRet al. Second line chemotherapy with docetaxel in patients with recurrent malignant glioma: a Phase II study. J. Neurooncol. 50, 245–249 (2000).
- van der Veldt AA , HendrikseNH, SmitEFet al. Biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of 11C-labelled docetaxel in cancer patients. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 37, 1950–1958 (2010).
- Gerber DE , GrossmanSA, StreiffMB. Management of venous thromboembolism in patients with primary and metastatic brain tumors.J. Clin. Oncol.24, 1310–1318 (2006).
- Klaassen Z , ShweikehF, ChamberlainR. Urological cancer metastasis to the brain: when should we resect?Uro. Today Int. J.5, article 10 (2012).
- van Brussel JP , MickischGH. Multidrug resistance in prostate cancer.Onkologie26, 175–181 (2003).
- Archimbaud Y , GiresP, PellerinR, NicheleG, PouletD. Pharmacokinetics of a new taxoid, 14C-TXD258, in blood, plasma and brain of the mouse, rat and dog.Proc. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. Abstract 1375 (2000).
- Cisternino S , BourassetF, ArchimbaudY, SemiondD, SanderinkG, ScherrmannJM. Nonlinear accumulation in the brain of the new taxoid TXD258 following saturation of P-glycoprotein at the blood–brain barrier in mice and rats.Br. J. Pharmacol.138, 1367–1375 (2003).
- Dykes D , SarsatJ, BisseryMC. Efficacy evaluation of TXD258, a taxoid compound against orthotopic and subcutaneous glioblastomas.Proc. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res.41, 301 (2000).
- Ryan CJ , SmithMR, de BonoJSet al. Interim analysis (IA) results of COU-AA-302, a randomized, Phase III study of abiraterone acetate (AA) in chemotherapy-naive patients (pts) with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). J. Clin. Oncol. 30(Suppl.), Abstract LBA4518 (2012).
- Foster WR , CarBD, ShiHet al. Drug safety is a barrier to the discovery and development of new androgen receptor antagonists. Prostate 71, 480–488 (2011).
- Kelly WK , HalabiS, CarducciMet al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase III trial comparing docetaxel and prednisone with or without bevacizumab in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: CALGB 90401. J. Clin. Oncol. 30, 1534–1540 (2012).
- Demierre B , BerneyJ. Intracranial metastases of cancer of the prostate.Neurochirurgie29, 143–149 (1983).
- Zhang X , TsukudaF, YamamotoN, TakenakaI. Brain metastasis from prostate cancer: a case report.Int. J. Urol.4, 519–521 (1997).
- Fervenza FC , WolanskyjAP, EklundHE, RichardsonRL. Brain metastasis: an unusual complication from prostatic adenocarcinoma.Mayo Clin. Proc.75, 79–82 (2000).
- Behrens B , HusainMM, SchmidleyJW. Cystic solitary intracerebral metastasis from prostate adenocarcinoma.Neuroradiology43, 162–164 (2001).
- Minami H , KanagawaK, WatanabeYet al. Complete remission of brain metastases from prostate cancer by γ knife radiosurgery: a case report. Hinyokika Kiyo 47, 333–336 (2001).
- Tsai V , KimS, ClatterbuckRE, EwendMG, OliviA. Cystic prostate metastases to the brain parenchyma: report of two cases and review of the literature.J. Neurooncol.51, 167–173 (2001).
- Erasmus CE , VerhagenWI, WautersCA, van LindertEJ. Brain metastasis from prostate small cell carcinoma: not to be neglected.Can. J. Neurol. Sci.29, 375–377 (2002).
- Saito EY , VianiGA, FerrignoRet al. Whole brain radiation therapy in management of brain metastasis: results and prognostic factors. Radiat. Oncol. 1, 20 (2006).
- Chiang PH , LeeTC, HuangCC. Intracranial metastasis of prostate cancer: report of two cases.Chang Gung. Med. J.27, 770–776 (2004).
- Confavreux CB , CottonF, TebibJG. Advanced MRI could help to differentiate meningeal carcinomatosis with mass effect from cerebral metastasis in prostate cancer.Bull. Cancer93, E31–E35 (2006).
- Grenader T , ShavitL, LossosA, PizovG, WygodaM. Brain metastases: a rare initial presentation of prostate cancer.Int. Urol. Nephrol.39, 537–539 (2007).
- Chitale S , WebbR, MacIverD, PeatD. Multifocal symptomatic intracerebral metastases as the first manifestation of prostatic carcinoma: a report and literature review.Int. Urol. Nephrol.40, 675–678 (2008).
- Castro Gomez JE , AnidoHU, CarballoCAet al. Brain metastases from prostate adenocarcinoma. Clin. Transl. Oncol. 11, 63–64 (2009).
- Sweets T , BrackenRB, GeislerEJ, WarnickR. Intracranial treatment for solitary prostatic adenocarcinoma brain metastasis is curative.Urology73, 681–689 (2009).
- Roberts-Thomson R , RosenthalMA, GonzalesM, DrummondK. Brain metastases in hormone refractory prostate cancer: a changing natural history?Intern. Med. J.39, 205–206 (2009).
- Gokoz Dogu G , OzkanM, KocyigitY, DurakA, ErO, AltinbaM. Intracranial metastasis from adenocarcinoma of prostate: case report.Türk Onkoloji Dergisi26, 174–177 (2011).
Websites
- ALTTO (Adjuvant Lapatinib And/Or Trastuzumab Treatment Optimisation) Study; BIG 2-06/N063D. http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00490139?term=NCT00490139&rank=1
- Cabazitaxel Versus Docetaxel Both With Prednisone in Patients With Metastatic Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer (FIRSTANA). http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01308567?term=NCT01308567&rank=1
- EMA: Assessment report for Zytiga (abiraterone). www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Public_assessment_report/human/002321/WC500112860.pdf
- A Safety and Efficacy Study of Oral MDV3100 in Chemotherapy-Naive Patients With Progressive Metastatic Prostate Cancer (PREVAIL). http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01212991?term=NCT01212991&rank=1