589
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Sex-Specific Differences in Side Effects of Psychotropic Drugs: Genes or Gender?

, , , &
Pages 1511-1526 | Published online: 17 Sep 2009

Bibliography

  • Martin RM , BiswasPN, FreemantleSN, PearceGL, MannRD: Age and sex distribution of suspected adverse drug reactions to newly marketed drugs in general practice in England: analysis of 48 cohort studies.Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.46 , 505–511 (1998).
  • Rademaker M : Do women have more adverse drug reactions?Am. J. Clin. Dermatol.2 , 349–351 (2001).
  • Anderson GD : Gender differences in pharmacological response.Int. Rev. Neurobiol.83 , 1–10 (2008).
  • Kim JS , NafzigerAN: Is it sex or is it gender?Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.68 , 1–3 (2000).
  • Hutson WR , RoehrkasseRL, WaldA: Influence of gender and menopause on gastric emptying and motility.Gastroenterology96 , 11–17 (1989).
  • Kashuba AD , NafzigerAN: Physiological changes during the menstrual cycle and their effects on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs.Clin. Pharmacokinet.34 , 203–218 (1998).
  • Stahl SM : Basic psychopharmacology of antidepressants, part 1: Antidepressants have seven distinct mechanisms of action.J. Clin. Psychiatry59(Suppl. 4) , 5–14 (1998).
  • Schwartz JB : The influence of sex on pharmacokinetics.Clin. Pharmacokinet.42 , 107–121 (2003).
  • Beierle I , MeibohmB, DerendorfH: Gender differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.37 , 529–547 (1999).
  • Prior TI , BakerGB: Interactions between the cytochrome P450 system and the second-generation antipsychotics.J. Psychiatry Neurosci.28 , 99–112 (2003).
  • Gex-Fabry M , Balant-GorgiaAE, BalantLP, RudazS, VeutheyJL, BertschyG: Time course of clinical response to venlafaxine: relevance of plasma level and chirality.Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.59 , 883–891 (2004).
  • Gex-Fabry M , RudazS, Balant-GorgiaAE et al.: Steady-state concentration of venlafaxine enantiomers: model-based analysis of between-patient variability.Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.58 , 323–331 (2002).
  • Thurmann PA , HompeschBC: Influence of gender on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs.Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.36 , 586–590 (1998).
  • Hagg S , SpigsetO, DahlqvistR: Influence of gender and oral contraceptives on CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 activity in healthy volunteers.Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.51 , 169–173 (2001).
  • Meibohm B , BeierleI, DerendorfH: How important are gender differences in pharmacokinetics?Clin. Pharmacokinet.41 , 329–342 (2002).
  • Parkinson A , MudraDR, JohnsonC, DwyerA, CarrollKM: The effects of gender, age, ethnicity, and liver cirrhosis on cytochrome P450 enzyme activity in human liver microsomes and inducibility in cultured human hepatocytes.Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.199 , 193–209 (2004).
  • Tamminga WJ , WemerJ, OosterhuisB et al.: CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 activity in a large population of Dutch healthy volunteers: indications for oral contraceptive-related gender differences.Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.55 , 177–184 (1999).
  • Gex-Fabry M , Balant-GorgiaAE, BalantLP, GarroneG: Clomipramine metabolism. Model-based analysis of variability factors from drug monitoring data.Clin. Pharmacokinet.19 , 241–255 (1990).
  • Weiss U , MarksteinerJ, KemmlerG, SariaA, AichhornW: Effects of age and sex on olanzapine plasma concentrations.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.25 , 570–574 (2005).
  • Kelly C , McCreadieRG: Smoking habits, current symptoms, and premorbid characteristics of schizophrenic patients in Nithsdale, Scotland.Am. J. Psychiatry156 , 1751–1757 (1999).
  • Skogh E , ReisM, DahlML, LundmarkJ, BengtssonF: Therapeutic drug monitoring data on olanzapine and its N-demethyl metabolite in the naturalistic clinical setting.Ther. Drug Monit.24 , 518–526 (2002).
  • Haring C , MeiseU, HumpelC, SariaA, FleischhackerWW, HinterhuberH: Dose-related plasma levels of clozapine: influence of smoking behaviour, sex and age.Psychopharmacology (Berl.)99(Suppl.) , S38–S40 (1989).
  • Lane HY , ChangYC, ChangWH, LinSK, TsengYT, JannMW: Effects of gender and age on plasma levels of clozapine and its metabolites: analyzed by critical statistics.J. Clin. Psychiatry60 , 36–40 (1999).
  • Rostami-Hodjegan A , AminAM, SpencerEP, LennardMS, TuckerGT, FlanaganRJ: Influence of dose, cigarette smoking, age, sex, and metabolic activity on plasma clozapine concentrations: a predictive model and nomograms to aid clozapine dose adjustment and to assess compliance in individual patients.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.24 , 70–78 (2004).
  • Hasselstrom J , LinnetK: Quetiapine serum concentrations in psychiatric patients: the influence of comedication.Ther. Drug Monit.26 , 486–491 (2004).
  • Wilner KD , TensfeldtTG, BarisB et al.: Single- and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of ziprasidone in healthy young and elderly volunteers.Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.49(Suppl. 1) , S15–S20 (2000).
  • Aichhorn W , WhitworthAB, WeissEM, MarksteinerJ: Second-generation antipsychotics: is there evidence for sex differences in pharmacokinetic and adverse effect profiles?Drug Saf.29 , 587–598 (2006).
  • Callaghan JT , BergstromRF, PtakLR, BeasleyCM: Olanzapine: pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile.Clin. Pharmacokinet.37 , 177–193 (1999).
  • Palego L , BiondiL, GiannacciniG et al.: Clozapine, norclozapine plasma levels, their sum and ratio in 50 psychotic patients: influence of patient-related variables.Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry26 , 473–480 (2002).
  • Usall J , ArayaS, OchoaS, BusquetsE, GostA, MarquezM: Gender differences in a sample of schizophrenic outpatients.Compr. Psychiatry42 , 301–305 (2001).
  • Back DJ , OrmeML: Pharmacokinetic drug interactions with oral contraceptives.Clin. Pharmacokinet.18 , 472–484 (1990).
  • Harris RZ , BenetLZ, SchwartzJB: Gender effects in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.Drugs50 , 222–239 (1995).
  • Pollock BG : Gender differences in psychotropic drug metabolism.Psychopharmacol. Bull.33 , 235–241 (1997).
  • Gross JL , FriedmanR, AzevedoMJ, SilveiroSP, PecisM: Effect of age and sex on glomerular filtration rate measured by 51Cr-EDTA.Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res.25 , 129–134 (1992).
  • Muller MJ , RegenbogenB, SachseJ, EichFX, HartterS, HiemkeC: Gender aspects in the clinical treatment of schizophrenic inpatients with amisulpride: a therapeutic drug monitoring study.Pharmacopsychiatry39 , 41–46 (2006).
  • Schuetz EG , FuruyaKN, SchuetzJD: Interindividual variation in expression of P-glycoprotein in normal human liver and secondary hepatic neoplasms.J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.275 , 1011–1018 (1995).
  • Rathore SS , WangY, KrumholzHM: Sex-based differences in the effect of digoxin for the treatment of heart failure.N. Engl. J. Med.347 , 1403–1411 (2002).
  • Melkersson KI , HultingAL, RaneAJ: Dose requirement and prolactin elevation of antipsychotics in male and female patients with schizophrenia or related psychoses.Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.51 , 317–324 (2001).
  • Arnold LM , StrakowskiSM, SchwiersML et al.: Sex, ethnicity, and antipsychotic medication use in patients with psychosis.Schizophr. Res.66 , 169–175 (2004).
  • Salokangas RK : Gender and the use of neuroleptics in schizophrenia.Schizophr. Res.66 , 41–49 (2004).
  • Naber D , KarowA: Good tolerability equals good results: the patient‘s perspective.Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol.11(Suppl. 4) , S391–S396 (2001).
  • Kasper S : First-episode schizophrenia: the importance of early intervention and subjective tolerability.J. Clin. Psychiatry60(Suppl. 23) , 5–9 (1999).
  • Awad AG , VorugantiLN: New antipsychotics, compliance, quality of life, and subjective tolerability – are patients better off?Can. J. Psychiatry49 , 297–302 (2004).
  • Barbui C , NoseM, BindmanJ et al.: Sex differences in the subjective tolerability of antipsychotic drugs.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.25 , 521–526 (2005).
  • Hildebrandt MG , SteyerbergEW, StageKB, PasschierJ, Kragh-SoerensenP: Are gender differences important for the clinical effects of antidepressants?Am. J. Psychiatry160 , 1643–1650 (2003).
  • Hamilton JA , HalbreichU: Special aspects of neuropsychiatric illness in women: with a focus on depression.Annu. Rev. Med.44 , 355–364 (1993).
  • Frackiewicz EJ , SramekJJ, CutlerNR: Gender differences in depression and antidepressant pharmacokinetics and adverse events.Ann. Pharmacother.34 , 80–88 (2000).
  • Parsons B , AllisonDB, LoebelA et al.: Weight effects associated with antipsychotics: a comprehensive database analysis.Schizophr. Res.110 , 103–110 (2009).
  • Muller DJ , KennedyJL: Genetics of antipsychotic treatment emergent weight gain in schizophrenia.Pharmacogenomics7 , 863–887 (2006).
  • Bouchard C , PerusseL: Genetic aspects of obesity.Ann. NY Acad. Sci.699 , 26–35 (1993).
  • Rankinen T , ZuberiA, ChagnonYC et al.: The human obesity gene map: the 2005 update.Obesity (Silver Spring)14 , 529–644 (2006).
  • Reynolds GP , HillMJ, KirkSL: The 5-HT2C receptor and antipsychoticinduced weight gain – mechanisms and genetics.J. Psychopharmacol.20 , 15–18 (2006).
  • Reynolds GP , ZhangZ, ZhangX: Polymorphism of the promoter region of the serotonin 5-HT(2C) receptor gene and clozapine-induced weight gain.Am. J. Psychiatry160 , 677–679 (2003).
  • Gregoor JG , van der Weide J, Mulder H et al.: Polymorphisms of the LEP- and LEPR gene and obesity in patients using antipsychotic medication. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.29 , 21–25 (2009).
  • Russell JM , MackellJA: Bodyweight gain associated with atypical antipsychotics: epidemiology and therapeutic implications.CNS Drugs15 , 537–551 (2001).
  • Homel P , CaseyD, AllisonDB: Changes in body mass index for individuals with and without schizophrenia, 1987–1996.Schizophr. Res.55 , 277–284 (2002).
  • Covell NH , WeissmanEM, EssockSM: Weight gain with clozapine compared to first generation antipsychotic medications.Schizophr. Bull.30 , 229–240 (2004).
  • Bobes J , RejasJ, Garcia-GarciaM et al.: Weight gain in patients with schizophrenia treated with risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine or haloperidol: results of the EIRE study.Schizophr. Res.62 , 77–88 (2003).
  • Frankenburg FR , ZanariniMC, KandoJ, CentorrinoF: Clozapine and body mass change.Biol. Psychiatry43 , 520–524 (1998).
  • Heimberg C , GallacherF, GurRC, GurRE: Diet and gender moderate clozapine-related weight gain.Hum. Psychopharmacol.10 , 367–371 (1995).
  • Bai YM , LinCC, ChenJY, LinCY: Weight gain among patients on clozapine.Psychiatr. Serv.50 , 704–705 (1999).
  • Basson BR , KinonBJ, TaylorCC, SzymanskiKA, GilmoreJA, TollefsonGD: Factors influencing acute weight change in patients with schizophrenia treated with olanzapine, haloperidol, or risperidone.J. Clin. Psychiatry62 , 231–238 (2001).
  • Hummer M , KemmlerG, KurzM, KurzthalerI, OberbauerH, FleischhackerWW: Weight gain induced by clozapine.Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol.5 , 437–440 (1995).
  • Umbricht DS , PollackS, KaneJM: Clozapine and weight gain.J. Clin. Psychiatry55(Suppl. B) , 157–160 (1994).
  • McEvoy JP , MeyerJM, GoffDC et al.: Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: baseline results from the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) schizophrenia trial and comparison with national estimates from NHANES III.Schizophr. Res.80 , 19–32 (2005).
  • Kato MM , CurrierMB, GomezCM, HallL, Gonzalez-BlancoM: Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Hispanic and non-Hispanic patients with schizophrenia.Prim. Care Companion J. Clin. Psychiatry6 , 74–77 (2004).
  • Boke O , AkerS, SarisoyG, SaricicekEB, SahinAR: Prevalence of metabolic syndrome among inpatients with schizophrenia.Int. J. Psychiatry Med.38 , 103–112 (2008).
  • Saari KM , LindemanSM, ViiloKM et al.: A 4-fold risk of metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort study.J. Clin. Psychiatry66 , 559–563 (2005).
  • Srisurapanont M , LikhitsathianS, BoonyanarutheeV, CharnsilpC, JarusuraisinN: Metabolic syndrome in Thai schizophrenic patients: a naturalistic one-year follow-up study.BMC Psychiatry7 , 14 (2007).
  • Akanji AO , OhaeriJU, Al-ShammriSA, FataniaHR: Associations of blood homocysteine concentrations in Arab schizophrenic patients.Clin. Biochem.40 , 1026–1031 (2007).
  • Wang HC , YangYK, ChenPS, LeeIH, YehTL, LuRB: Increased plasma leptin in antipsychotic-naive females with schizophrenia, but not in males.Neuropsychobiology56 , 213–215 (2007).
  • Meyer JM , DavisVG, GoffDC et al.: Change in metabolic syndrome parameters with antipsychotic treatment in the CATIE Schizophrenia Trial: prospective data from phase 1.Schizophr. Res.101 , 273–286 (2008).
  • Osser DN , NajarianDM, DufresneRL: Olanzapine increases weight and serum triglyceride levels.J. Clin. Psychiatry60 , 767–770 (1999).
  • Henderson DC , CaglieroE, GrayC et al.: Clozapine, diabetes mellitus, weight gain, and lipid abnormalities: A five-year naturalistic study.Am. J. Psychiatry157 , 975–981 (2000).
  • Henderson DC , CaglieroE, CopelandPM et al.: Glucose metabolism in patients with schizophrenia treated with atypical antipsychotic agents: a frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test and minimal model analysis.Arch. Gen. Psychiatry62 , 19–28 (2005).
  • Kim SH , IvanovaO, AbbasiFA, LamendolaCA, ReavenGM, GlickID: Metabolic impact of switching antipsychotic therapy to aripiprazole after weight gain: a pilot study.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.27 , 365–368 (2007).
  • Meyer JM , DavisVG, McEvoyJP et al.: Impact of antipsychotic treatment on nonfasting triglycerides in the CATIE Schizophrenia Trial phase 1.Schizophr. Res.103 , 104–109 (2008).
  • Gaulin BD , MarkowitzJS, CaleyCF, NesbittLA, DufresneRL: Clozapine-associated elevation in serum triglycerides.Am. J. Psychiatry156 , 1270–1272 (1999).
  • Ostbye T , CurtisLH, MasselinkLE et al.: Atypical antipsychotic drugs and diabetes mellitus in a large outpatient population: a retrospective cohort study.Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf.14 , 407–415 (2005).
  • Danesh J , LewingtonS: Plasma homocysteine and coronary heart disease: systematic review of published epidemiological studies.J. Cardiovasc. Risk5 , 229–232 (1998).
  • Applebaum J , ShimonH, SelaBA, BelmakerRH, LevineJ: Homocysteine levels in newly admitted schizophrenic patients.J. Psychiatr. Res.38 , 413–416 (2004).
  • Wilson PW , D‘AgostinoRB, PariseH, SullivanL, MeigsJB: Metabolic syndrome as a precursor of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus.Circulation112 , 3066–3072 (2005).
  • Goff DC , SullivanLM, McEvoyJP et al.: A comparison of ten-year cardiac risk estimates in schizophrenia patients from the CATIE study and matched controls.Schizophr. Res.80 , 45–53 (2005).
  • Ray WA , ChungCP, MurrayKT, HallK, SteinCM: Atypical antipsychotic drugs and the risk of sudden cardiac death.N. Engl. J. Med.360 , 225–235 (2009).
  • Mulder H , CohenD, SchefferH et al.: HTR2C gene polymorphisms and the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: a replication study.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.29 , 16–20 (2009).
  • Srivastava V , DeshpandeSN, NimgaonkarVL, LererB, ThelmaB: Genetic correlates of olanzapine-induced weight gain in schizophrenia subjects from north India: role of metabolic pathway genes.Pharmacogenomics9 , 1055–1068 (2008).
  • Yevtushenko OO , CooperSJ, O‘NeillR, DohertyJK, WoodsideJV, ReynoldsGP: Influence of 5-HT2C receptor and leptin gene polymorphisms, smoking and drug treatment on metabolic disturbances in patients with schizophrenia.Br. J. Psychiatry192 , 424–428 (2008).
  • Ellingrod VL , Miller del D, Taylor SF, Moline J, Holman T, Kerr J: Metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance in schizophrenia patients receiving antipsychotics genotyped for the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) 677C/T and 1298A/C variants. Schizophr. Res.98 , 47–54 (2008).
  • Mulder H , FrankeB, van der-Beek van der AA et al.: The association between HTR2C gene polymorphisms and the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.27 , 338–343 (2007).
  • Gunes A , MelkerssonKI, ScordoMG, DahlML: Association between HTR2C and HTR2A polymorphisms and metabolic abnormalities in patients treated with olanzapine or clozapine.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.29 , 65–68 (2009).
  • Kelly DL : Treatment considerations in women with schizophrenia.J. Womens Health (Larchmt)15 , 1132–1140 (2006).
  • O‘Keane V , MeaneyAM: Antipsychotic drugs: a new risk factor for osteoporosis in young women with schizophrenia?J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.25 , 26–31 (2005).
  • Kopecek M , BaresM, SvarcJ, DockeryC, HoracekJ: Hyperprolactinemia after low dose of amisulpride.Neuro. Endocrinol. Lett.25 , 419–422 (2004).
  • Haddad PM , WieckA: Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinaemia: mechanisms, clinical features and management.Drugs64 , 2291–2314 (2004).
  • Volavka J , CzoborP, CooperTB et al.: Prolactin levels in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder patients treated with clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, or haloperidol.J. Clin. Psychiatry65 , 57–61 (2004).
  • Wieck A , HaddadPM: Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinaemia in women: pathophysiology, severity and consequences. Selective literature review.Br. J. Psychiatry182 , 199–204 (2003).
  • Montgomery J , WinterbottomE, JessaniM et al.: Prevalence of hyperprolactinemia in schizophrenia: association with typical and atypical antipsychotic treatment.J. Clin. Psychiatry65 , 1491–1498 (2004).
  • Kuruvilla A , PeedicayilJ, SrikrishnaG, KuruvillaK, KanagasabapathyAS: A study of serum prolactin levels in schizophrenia: comparison of males and females.Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol.19 , 603–606 (1992).
  • Smith S , WheelerMJ, MurrayR, O‘KeaneV: The effects of antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinaemia on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.22 , 109–114 (2002).
  • Knegtering R , CasteleinS, BousH et al.: A randomized open-label study of the impact of quetiapine versus risperidone on sexual functioning.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.24 , 56–61 (2004).
  • Knegtering H , van der Moolen AE, Castelein S, Kluiter H, van den Bosch RJ: What are the effects of antipsychotics on sexual dysfunctions and endocrine functioning? Psychoneuroendocrinology28(Suppl. 2) , 109–123 (2003).
  • Claus A , BollenJ, De Cuyper H et al.: Risperidone versus haloperidol in the treatment of chronic schizophrenic inpatients: a multicentre double-blind comparative study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.85 , 295–305 (1992).
  • Halbreich U , KinonBJ, GilmoreJA, KahnLS: Elevated prolactin levels in patients with schizophrenia: mechanisms and related adverse effects.Psychoneuroendocrinology28(Suppl. 1) , 53–67 (2003).
  • Hummer M , HuberJ: Hyperprolactinaemia and antipsychotic therapy in schizophrenia.Curr. Med. Res. Opin.20 , 189–197 (2004).
  • Ghadirian AM , ChouinardG, AnnableL: Sexual dysfunction and plasma prolactin levels in neuroleptic-treated schizophrenic outpatients.J. Nerv. Ment. Dis.170 , 463–467 (1982).
  • Beumont PJ , CorkerCS, FriesenHG et al.: The effects of phenothiazines on endocrine function: II. Effects in men and post-menopausal women.Br. J. Psychiatry124 , 420–430 (1974).
  • Kim YK , KimL, LeeMS: Risperidone and associated amenorrhea: a report of 5 cases.J. Clin. Psychiatry60 , 315–317 (1999).
  • Hankinson SE , WillettWC, MichaudDS et al.: Plasma prolactin levels and subsequent risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women.J. Natl Cancer Inst.91 , 629–634 (1999).
  • Wang PS , WalkerAM, TsuangMT et al.: Dopamine antagonists and the development of breast cancer.Arch. Gen. Psychiatry59 , 1147–1154 (2002).
  • Oksbjerg D alton S, Munk Laursen T, Mellemkjaer L, Johansen C, Mortensen PB: Schizophrenia and the risk for breast cancer. Schizophr. Res.62 , 89–92 (2003).
  • Klibanski A , NeerRM, BeitinsIZ, RidgwayEC, ZervasNT, McArthurJW: Decreased bone density in hyperprolactinemic women.N. Engl. J. Med.303 , 1511–1514 (1980).
  • Abraham G , PaingWW, KaminskiJ, JosephA, KohegyiE, JosiassenRC: Effects of elevated serum prolactin on bone mineral density and bone metabolism in female patients with schizophrenia: a prospective study.Am. J. Psychiatry160 , 1618–1620 (2003).
  • Becker D , LiverO, MesterR, RapoportM, WeizmanA, WeissM: Risperidone, but not olanzapine, decreases bone mineral density in female premenopausal schizophrenia patients.J. Clin. Psychiatry64 , 761–766 (2003).
  • Meaney AM , SmithS, HowesOD, O‘BrienM, MurrayRM, O‘KeaneV: Effects of long-term prolactin-raising antipsychotic medication on bone mineral density in patients with schizophrenia.Br. J. Psychiatry184 , 503–508 (2004).
  • Aizenberg D , ZemishlanyZ, Dorfman-EtrogP, WeizmanA: Sexual dysfunction in male schizophrenic patients.J. Clin. Psychiatry56 , 137–141 (1995).
  • Wirshing DA , PierreJM, MarderSR, SaundersCS, WirshingWC: Sexual side effects of novel antipsychotic medications.Schizophr. Res.56 , 25–30 (2002).
  • Aizenberg D , ModaiI, LandaA, Gil-AdI, WeizmanA: Comparison of sexual dysfunction in male schizophrenic patients maintained on treatment with classical antipsychotics versus clozapine.J. Clin. Psychiatry62 , 541–544 (2001).
  • Macdonald S , HallidayJ, MacET et al.: Nithsdale Schizophrenia Surveys 24: sexual dysfunction. Case–control study.Br. J. Psychiatry182 , 50–56 (2003).
  • Meston CM , FrohlichPF: The neurobiology of sexual function.Arch. Gen. Psychiatry57 , 1012–1030 (2000).
  • Teusch L , ScherbaumN, BohmeH, BenderS, Eschmann-MehlG, GastparM: Different patterns of sexual dysfunctions associated with psychiatric disorders and psychopharmacological treatment. Results of an investigation by semistructured interview of schizophrenic and neurotic patients and methadone-substituted opiate addicts.Pharmacopsychiatry28 , 84–92 (1995).
  • Yap YG , CammJ: Risk of torsades de pointes with non-cardiac drugs. Doctors need to be aware that many drugs can cause qt prolongation.BMJ320 , 1158–1159 (2000).
  • Czekalla J , BeasleyCM Jr, Dellva MA, Berg PH, Grundy S: Analysis of the QTc interval during olanzapine treatment of patients with schizophrenia and related psychosis. J. Clin. Psychiatry62 , 191–198 (2001).
  • Agelink MW , MajewskiT, WurthmannC et al.: Effects of newer atypical antipsychotics on autonomic neurocardiac function: a comparison between amisulpride, olanzapine, sertindole, and clozapine.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.21 , 8–13 (2001).
  • Litherland S : Drug treatment and schizophrenia in the 1990s.Drugs54 , 794 (1997).
  • Harrigan EP , MiceliJJ, AnzianoR et al.: A randomized evaluation of the effects of six antipsychotic agents on QTc, in the absence and presence of metabolic inhibition.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.24 , 62–69 (2004).
  • Haverkamp W , BreithardtG, CammAJ et al.: The potential for QT prolongation and pro-arrhythmia by non-anti-arrhythmic drugs: clinical and regulatory implications. Report on a Policy Conference of the European Society of Cardiology.Cardiovasc. Res.47 , 219–233 (2000).
  • Roden DM : Torsade de pointes.Clin. Cardiol.16 , 683–686 (1993).
  • Haverkamp W , MonnigG, Schulze-BahrE, HaverkampF, BreithardtG: Physician-induced torsade de pointes – therapeutic implications.Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther.16 , 101–109 (2002).
  • Bailey MS , CurtisAB: The effects of hormones on arrhythmias in women.Curr. Womens Health Rep.2 , 83–88 (2002).
  • Makkar RR , FrommBS, SteinmanRT, MeissnerMD, LehmannMH: Female gender as a risk factor for torsades de pointes associated with cardiovascular drugs.JAMA270 , 2590–2597 (1993).
  • Larsen JA , KadishAH: Effects of gender on cardiac arrhythmias.J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol.9 , 655–664 (1998).
  • Lehmann MH , HardyS, ArchibaldD, QuartB, MacNeilDJ: Sex difference in risk of torsade de pointes with d,l-sotalol.Circulation94 , 2535–2541 (1996).
  • Wolbrette D : Gender differences in the proarrhythmic potential of QT-prolonging drugs.Curr. Womens Health Rep.2 , 105–109 (2002).
  • Kawasaki R , MachadoC, ReinoehlJ et al.: Increased propensity of women to develop torsades de pointes during complete heart block.J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol.6 , 1032–1038 (1995).
  • Ebert SN , LiuXK, WoosleyRL: Female gender as a risk factor for drug-induced cardiac arrhythmias: evaluation of clinical and experimental evidence.J. Womens Health7 , 547–557 (1998).
  • Drici MD , ClementN: Is gender a risk factor for adverse drug reactions? The example of drug-induced long QT syndrome.Drug Saf.24 , 575–585 (2001).
  • Kassotis J , CosteasC, BediAK, TolatA, ReiffelJ: Effects of aging and gender on QT dispersion in an overtly healthy population.Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol.23 , 1121–1126 (2000).
  • Roe CM , OdellKW, HendersonRR: Concomitant use of antipsychotics and drugs that may prolong the QT interval.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.23 , 197–200 (2003).
  • van Os J , FahyT, JonesP, HarveyI, TooneB, MurrayR: Tardive dyskinesia: who is at risk?Acta Psychiatr. Scand.96 , 206–216 (1997).
  • Casey DE : Tardive dyskinesia and atypical antipsychotic drugs.Schizophr. Res.35(Suppl.) , S61–S66 (1999).
  • Yassa R , JesteDV: Gender differences in tardive dyskinesia: a critical review of the literature.Schizophr. Bull.18 , 701–715 (1992).
  • Seeman P : Brain dopamine receptors in schizophrenia and tardive dyskinesia.Psychopharmacology Suppl.2 , 1–8 (1985).
  • Morgenstern H , GlazerWM: Identifying risk factors for tardive dyskinesia among long-term outpatients maintained with neuroleptic medications. Results of the Yale Tardive Dyskinesia Study.Arch. Gen. Psychiatry50 , 723–733 (1993).
  • van Os J , WalshE, van Horn E, Tattan T, Bale R, Thompson SG: Tardive dyskinesia in psychosis: are women really more at risk? UK700 Group. Acta Psychiatr. Scand.99 , 288–293 (1999).
  • Waddington JL : Sight and insight: brain dopamine receptor occupancy by neuroleptics visualised in living schizophrenic patients by positron emission tomography.Br. J. Psychiatry154 , 433–436 (1989).
  • Seeman P , Chau-WongM, TedescoJ, WongK: Brain receptors for antipsychotic drugs and dopamine: direct binding assays.Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA72 , 4376–4380 (1975).
  • Thelma B , SrivastavaV, TiwariAK: Genetic underpinnings of tardive dyskinesia: passing the baton to pharmacogenetics.Pharmacogenomics9 , 1285–1306 (2008).
  • Arranz MJ , de Leon J: Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics of schizophrenia: a review of last decade of research. Mol. Psychiatry12 , 707–747 (2007).
  • Correll CU , LeuchtS, KaneJM: Lower risk for tardive dyskinesia associated with second-generation antipsychotics: a systematic review of 1-year studies.Am. J. Psychiatry161 , 414–425 (2004).
  • Correll CU , SchenkEM: Tardive dyskinesia and new antipsychotics.Curr. Opin. Psychiatry21 , 151–156 (2008).
  • Davidson M , HarveyPD, VervarckeJ et al.: A long-term, multicenter, open-label study of risperidone in elderly patients with psychosis. On behalf of the Risperidone Working Group.Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry15 , 506–514 (2000).
  • Casey DE : Neuroleptic drug-induced extrapyramidal syndromes and tardive dyskinesia.Schizophr. Res.4 , 109–120 (1991).
  • Grohmann R , KochR, SchmidtLG: Extrapyramidal symptoms in neuroleptic recipients.Agents Actions Suppl.29 , 71–82 (1990).
  • Labelle A , LightM, DunbarF: Risperidone treatment of outpatients with schizophrenia: no evidence of sex differences in treatment response.Can. J. Psychiatry46 , 534–541 (2001).
  • Kornstein S , SchatzbergAF, ThaseME et al. Gender differences in treatment response to sertaline versus imipramine in chronic depression. Am J. Psychiatry 157(9) , 1445–1452 (2000).
  • Gregorian RS , GoldenKA, BahceA, GoodmanC, KwongWJ, KhanZM: Antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction.Ann. Pharmacother.36 , 1577–1589 (2002).
  • Montejo AL , LlorcaG, IzquierdoJA, Rico-VillademorosF: Incidence of sexual dysfunction associated with antidepressant agents: a prospective multicenter study of 1022 outpatients. Spanish Working Group for the Study of Psychotropic-Related Sexual Dysfunction.J. Clin. Psychiatry62(Suppl. 3) , 10–21 (2001).
  • Clayton AH : Female sexual dysfunction related to depression and antidepressant medications.Curr. Womens Health Rep.2 , 182–187 (2002).
  • Clayton AH , PradkoJF, CroftHA et al.: Prevalence of sexual dysfunction among newer antidepressants.J. Clin. Psychiatry63 , 357–366 (2002).
  • Kennedy SH , EisfeldBS, DickensSE, BacchiochiJR, BagbyRM: Antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction during treatment with moclobemide, paroxetine, sertraline, and venlafaxine.J. Clin. Psychiatry61 , 276–281 (2000).
  • Piazza LA , MarkowitzJC, KocsisJH et al.: Sexual functioning in chronically depressed patients treated with SSRI antidepressants: a pilot study.Am. J. Psychiatry154 , 1757–1759 (1997).
  • Henry C : Lithium side-effects and predictors of hypothyroidism in patients with bipolar disorder: sex differences.J. Psychiatry Neurosci.27 , 104–107 (2002).
  • Frye MA , DenicoffKD, BryanAL et al.: Association between lower serum free T4 and greater mood instability and depression in lithium-maintained bipolar patients.Am. J. Psychiatry156 , 1909–1914 (1999).
  • Vincent A , BaruchP, VincentP: Early onset of lithium-associated hypothyroidism.J. Psychiatry Neurosci.18 , 74–77 (1993).
  • Bocchetta A , BernardiF, PedditziM et al.: Thyroid abnormalities during lithium treatment.Acta Psychiatr. Scand.83 , 193–198 (1991).
  • Johnston AM , EaglesJM: Lithium-associated clinical hypothyroidism. Prevalence and risk factors.Br. J. Psychiatry175 , 336–339 (1999).
  • Vestergaard P , AmdisenA, SchouM: Clinically significant side effects of lithium treatment. A survey of 237 patients in long-term treatment.Acta Psychiatr. Scand.62 , 193–200 (1980).
  • Vestergaard P , LichtRW, BrodersenA et al.: Outcome of lithium prophylaxis: a prospective follow-up of affective disorder patients assigned to high and low serum lithium levels.Acta Psychiatr. Scand.98 , 310–315 (1998).
  • Teixeira NA , KarniolIG: The influence of age and sex on weight variation in rats treated chronically with lithium chloride.Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. (Copenh.)51 , 1–5 (1982).
  • Vendsborg PB , BechP, RafaelsenOJ: Lithium treatment and weight gain.Acta Psychiatr. Scand.53 , 139–147 (1976).
  • Volzke E , DooseH: Dipropylacetate (Depakine, Ergenyl) in the treatment of epilepsy.Epilepsia14 , 185–193 (1973).
  • Hassan MN , LaljeeHC, ParsonageMJ: Sodium valproate in the treatment of resistant epilepsy.Acta Neurol. Scand.54 , 209–218 (1976).
  • Covanis A , GuptaAK, JeavonsPM: Sodium valproate: monotherapy and polytherapy.Epilepsia23 , 693–720 (1982).
  • Schmidt D : Adverse effects of valproate.Epilepsia25(Suppl. 1) , S44–S49 (1984).
  • Jallon P , PicardF: Bodyweight gain and anticonvulsants: a comparative review.Drug Saf.24 , 969–978 (2001).
  • El-Khatib F , RauchenzaunerM, LechleitnerM et al.: Valproate, weight gain and carbohydrate craving: a gender study.Seizure16 , 226–232 (2007).
  • Dinesen H , GramL, AndersenT, DamM: Weight gain during treatment with valproate.Acta Neurol. Scand.70 , 65–69 (1984).
  • Bilo L , MeoR: Polycystic ovary syndrome in women using valproate: a review.Gynecol. Endocrinol.24 , 562–570 (2008).
  • Morrell MJ , HayesFJ, SlussPM et al.: Hyperandrogenism, ovulatory dysfunction, and polycystic ovary syndrome with valproate versus lamotrigine.Ann. Neurol.64 , 200–211 (2008).
  • Rasgon NL , AltshulerLL, GudemanD et al.: Medication status and polycystic ovary syndrome in women with bipolar disorder: a preliminary report.J. Clin. Psychiatry61 , 173–178 (2000).
  • Rasgon NL , AltshulerLL, FairbanksL et al.: Reproductive function and risk for PCOS in women treated for bipolar disorder.Bipolar Disord.7 , 246–259 (2005).
  • McIntyre RS , ManciniDA, McCannS, SrinivasanJ, KennedySH: Valproate, bipolar disorder and polycystic ovarian syndrome.Bipolar Disord.5 , 28–35 (2003).
  • O‘Donovan C , KusumakarV, GravesGR, BirdDC: Menstrual abnormalities and polycystic ovary syndrome in women taking valproate for bipolar mood disorder.J. Clin. Psychiatry63 , 322–330 (2002).
  • Tohen M , CastilloJ, BaldessariniRJ, ZarateC Jr, Kando JC: Blood dyscrasias with carbamazepine and valproate: a pharmacoepidemiological study of 2,228 patients at risk. Am. J. Psychiatry152 , 413–418 (1995).
  • Trannel TJ , AhmedI, GoebertD: Occurrence of thrombocytopenia in psychiatric patients taking valproate.Am. J. Psychiatry158 , 128–130 (2001).
  • Stubner S , GrohmannR, EngelR et al.: Blood dyscrasias induced by psychotropic drugs.Pharmacopsychiatry37(Suppl. 1) , S70–S78 (2004).
  • Tran C , KnowlesSR, LiuBA, ShearNH: Gender differences in adverse drug reactions.J. Clin. Pharmacol.38 , 1003–1009 (1998).
  • Alvestad S , LydersenS, BrodtkorbE: Rash from antiepileptic drugs: influence by gender, age, and learning disability.Epilepsia48 , 1360–1365 (2007).
  • Gau SS , ChaoPF, LinYJ, ChangCJ, GauCS: The association between carbamazepine and valproate and adverse cutaneous drug reactions in patients with bipolar disorder: a nested matched case–control study.J. Clin. Psychopharmacol.28 , 509–517 (2008).
  • Bate A : Sex differences in suspected adverse drug reaction reports: data mining analysis of the four million record WHO database.Gender Med.5 , 300–301 (2008) (Abstract).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.