Team Size, Dispersion, and Social Loafing in Technology-Supported Teams: A Perspective on the Theory of Moral Disengagement

References

• Ajzen, I. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 2 (1991), 179-211.
   Google Scholar
• Albanese, R., and Van Fleet, D. Rational behavior in groups: The free-riding tendency. Academy of Management Review, 10, 2 (1985), 244-255.
   Google Scholar
• Aquino, K.; Reed, A.; Thau, S.; and Freeman, D. A grotesque and dark beauty: How moral identity and mechanisms of moral disengagement influence cognitive and emotional reactions to war. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 3 (2007), 385-392.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. Mechanisms of moral disengagement. In W. Reich (ed.), Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 161-191.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. Selective activation and disengagement of moral control. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 1 (1990), 27-46.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Moral Education, 31, 2 (2002), 101-119.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. The role of selective moral disengagement in terrorism and counterterrorism. In F. Moghaddam and A. Marsella (eds.), Understanding Terrorism: Psychosocial Roots, Consequences, and Interventions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2004, pp. 121-150.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. Selective exercise of moral agency. In H. Walberg and T. Thorkildsen (eds.), Nurturing Morality. Boston: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2004, pp. 35-57.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A.; Barbaranelli, C.; Caprara, G.; and Pastorelli, C. Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 2 (1996), 364-374.
   Google Scholar
• Barnard, A. On the relationship between technique and dehumanization. In R. Locsin (ed.), Advancing Technology, Caring, and Nursing. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001, pp. 96-105.
   Google Scholar
• Berkowitz, L. Decreased helpfulness with increased group size through lessening the effects of the needy individual's dependency. Journal of Personality, 46, 2 (1978), 299-310.
   Google Scholar
• Boh, W. F.; Ren, Y.; Kiesler, S.; and Bussjaeger, R. Expertise and collaboration in the geographically dispersed organization. Organization Science, 18, 4 (2007), 595-612.
   Google Scholar
• Bradley, G. W. Self-serving biases in the attribution process: A reexamination of the fact or fiction question. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1 (1978), 56-71.
   Google Scholar
• Burgoon, J.; Burgoon, M.; Broneck, K.; Alvaro, E.; and Nunamaker, J. F., Jr. Effects of synchronicity and proximity on group communication. Paper presented at the annual convention of the National Communication Association, New Orleans, LA, November 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Burgoon, J. K.; Bonito, J. A.; Ramirez, A.; Dunbar, N. E.; Kam, K.; and Fischer, J. Testing the interactivity principle: Effects of mediation, propinquity, and verbal and nonverbal modalities in interpersonal interaction. Journal of Communication, 52, 3 (2002), 657-677.
   Google Scholar
• Burke, K., and Chidambaram, L. How much bandwidth is enough? A longitudinal examination of media characteristics and group outcomes. MIS Quarterly, 23, 4 (1999), 557-580.
   Google Scholar
• Caprara, G. V., and Capanna, C. Moral civic disengagement and values. Ricerche Di Psicologia, 15, 1 (2005), 67-84.
   Google Scholar
• Chidambaram, L. Relational development in computer-supported groups. MIS Quarterly, 20, 2 (1996), 143-165.
   Google Scholar
• Chidambaram, L., and Tung, L. L. Is out of sight, out of mind? An empirical study of social loafing in technology-supported groups. Information Systems Research, 16, 2 (2005), 149-168.
   Google Scholar
• Chin, W. W. The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling. In G. Marcoulides (ed.), Modern Methods for Business Research. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1998, pp. 295-336.
   Google Scholar
• Chin, W. W.; Marcolin, B. L.; and Newsted, P. R. A partial least squares latent variable modeling approach for measuring interaction effects: Results from a Monte Carlo simulation study and an electronic-mail emotion/adoption study. Information Systems Research, 14, 2 (2003), 189-217.
   Google Scholar
• Connolly, T.; Routhieaux, R. L.; and Schneider, S. K. On the effectiveness of group brainstorming: Test of one underlying cognitive mechanism. Small Group Research, 24, 4 (1993), 490-503.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, J. Cognitive Dissonance: Fifty Years of a Classic Theory. Los Angeles: Sage, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Cramton, C. D. The mutual knowledge problem and its consequences for dispersed collaboration. Organization Science, 12, 3 (2001), 346-371.
   Google Scholar
• Cramton, C. D. Finding common ground in dispersed collaboration. Organizational Dynamics, 30, 4 (2002), 356-367.
   Google Scholar
• Dennis, A. R. Information exchange and use in group decision making: You can lead a group to information, but you can't make it think. MIS Quarterly, 20, 4 (1996), 433-457.
   Google Scholar
• Dennis, A. R., and Garfield, M. J. The adoption and use of GSS in project teams: Toward more participative processes and outcomes. MIS Quarterly, 27, 2 (2003), 289-323.
   Google Scholar
• Dennis, A. R., and Valacich, J. S. Electronic brainstorming: Illusions and patterns of productivity. Information Systems Research, 10, 4 (1999), 375-377.
   Google Scholar
• DeVellis, R. F. Scale Development: Theory and Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Dobbins, G. H.; Lane, I. M.; and Steiner, D. D. A note on the role of laboratory methodologies in applied behavioural research: Don't throw out the baby with the bath water. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 9, 3 (1988), 281-286.
   Google Scholar
• Driskell, J. E.; Radtke, P. H.; and Salas, E. Virtual teams: Effects of technological mediation on team performance. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 7, 4 (2003), 297-323.
   Google Scholar
• Fornell, C., and Larcker, D. F. Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 1 (1981), 39-50.
   Google Scholar
• Gallupe, R. B.; Dennis, A. R.; Cooper, W. H.; Valacich, J. S.; Bastianutti, L. M.; and Nunamaker, J. F., Jr. Electronic brainstorming and group size. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 2 (1992), 350-369.
   Google Scholar
• George, J. M. Extrinsic and intrinsic origins of perceived social loafing in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 1 (1992), 191-202.
   Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer, P. M., and Bargh, J. A. The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior. New York: Guilford Press, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Haleblian, J., and Finkelstein, S. Top management team size, CEO dominance, and firm performance: The moderating roles of environmental turbulence and discretion. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 4 (1993), 844-863.
   Google Scholar
• Hare, A. P. A study of interaction and consensus in different sized groups. American Sociological Review, 17, 3 (1952), 261-267.
   Google Scholar
• Harkins, S. G., and Petty, R. E. Effects of task difficulty and task uniqueness on social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 6 (1982), 1214-1229.
   Google Scholar
• Harkins, S., and Szymanski, K. Social loafing and group evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 6 (1989), 934-941.
   Google Scholar
• Haslam, N. Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 3 (2006), 252-264.
   Google Scholar
• Hinds, P. J., and Mortensen, M. Understanding conflict in geographically distributed teams: The moderating effects of shared identity, shared context, and spontaneous communication. Organization Science, 16, 3 (2005), 290-307.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson, J., and Williams, K. Social loafing on difficult tasks: Working collectively can improve performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 4 (1985), 937-972.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, E. E., and Nisbett, R. E. The Actor and the Observer: Divergent Perceptions of the Causes of Behavior. New York: General Learning Press, 1971.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, G. Task visibility, free riding, and shirking: Explaining the effect of structure and technology on employee behavior. Academy of Management Review, 9, 4 (1984), 684-695.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, T. M. Ethical decision making by individuals in organizations: An issue-contingent model. Academy of Management Review, 16, 2 (1991), 366-395.
   Google Scholar
• Karau, S. J., and Williams, K. D. Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 4 (1993), 681-706.
   Google Scholar
• Karau, S. J., and Williams, K. D. The effects of group cohesiveness on social loafing and social compensation. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 1, 2 (1997), 156-168.
   Google Scholar
• Karau, S. J.; Williams, K. D.; and Hitlan, R. T. Social identification and social loafing. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Washington, DC, April 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Kelman, H. C. Violence without restraint: Reflections on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers. In G. M. Kren and L. H. Rappoport (eds.), Varieties of Psychohistory. New York: Springer, 1976, pp. 282-314.
   Google Scholar
• Kerr, N. Motivation losses in small groups: A social dilemma analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 4 (1983), 819-828.
   Google Scholar
• Kerr, N. L., and Bruun, S. E. Ringelmann revisited: Alternative explanations for the social loafing effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 2 (1981), 224-231.
   Google Scholar
• Kidwell, R. E., and Bennett, N. Employee propensity to withhold effort: A conceptual model to intersect three avenues of research. Academy of Management Review, 18, 3 (1993), 429-456.
   Google Scholar
• Kiesler, S., and Cummings, J. N. What do we know about proximity and distance in work groups? A legacy of research. In P. J. Hinds and S. Kiesler (eds.), Distributed Work. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002, pp. 57-80.
   Google Scholar
• Latane, B. The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36, 4 (1981), 343-356.
   Google Scholar
• Latane, B., and Darley, J. M. The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn't He Help? New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970.
   Google Scholar
• Latane, B.; Williams, K.; and Harkins, S. Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 6 (1979), 822-832.
   Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., and Kowalski, R. M. Impression management: A literature review and twocomponent model. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 1 (1990), 34-47.
   Google Scholar
• Leyens, J.-P.; Rodriguez-Perez, A.; Rodriguez-Torres, R.; Gaunt, R.; Paladino, M.-P.; Vaes, J.; and Demoulin, S. Psychological essentialism and the differential attribution of uniquely human emotions to ingroups and outgroups. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 4 (2001), 395-411.
   Google Scholar
• Lin, T., and Huang, C. Understanding social loafing in knowledge contribution from the perspectives of justice and trust. Expert Systems with Applications, 36, 3 (2009), 6156-6163.
   Google Scholar
• Lind, M. R. The gender impact of temporary virtual work groups. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 42, 4 (1999), 276-285.
   Google Scholar
• Littlepage, G. E. Effects of group size and task characteristics on group performance: A test of Steiner's model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 4 (1991), 449-456.
   Google Scholar
• Locke, E. Generalizing from Laboratory to Field Settings: Research Findings from Industrial-Organizational Psychology, Organizational Behavior, and Human Resource Management. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1986.
   Google Scholar
• Lohmoller, J. Latent Variable Path Modeling with Partial Least Squares. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag, 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Maruping, L. M., and Agarwal, R. Managing team interpersonal processes through technology: A task-technology fit perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 6 (2004), 975-990.
   Google Scholar
• Maruping, L. M.; Venkatesh, V.; and Agarwal, R. A control theory perspective on agile methodology use and changing user requirements. Information Systems Research, 20, 3 (2009), 377-399.
   Google Scholar
• McAvoy, J., and Butler, T. Looking for a place to hide: A study of social loafing in agile teams. In J. Ljungberg and M. Andersson (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fourteenth European Conference on Information Systems. Atlanta: Association for Information Systems, 2006, pp. 596-607.
   Google Scholar
• McDonough, E. F., Kahn, K. B., and Barczaka, G. An investigation of the use of global, virtual, and colocated new product development teams. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 18, 2 (2001), 110-120.
   Google Scholar
• Milgram, S. Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View. New York: Tavistock, 1974.
   Google Scholar
• Miranda, S. M., and Bostrom, R. P. The impact of group support systems on group conflict and conflict management. Journal of Management Information Systems, 10, 3 (Winter 1993-94), 63-95.
   Google Scholar
• Montagu, A., and Matson, F. W. The Dehumanization of Man. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Moore, C. Moral disengagement in processes of organizational corruption. Journal of Business Ethics, 80, 1 (2008), 129-139.
   Google Scholar
• Nissenbaum, H., and Walker, D. Will computers dehumanize education? A grounded approach to values at risk. Technology in Society, 20, 3 (1998), 237-273.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E.; Harkins, S. G.; Williams, K. D.; and Latane, B. The effects of group size on cognitive effort and evaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3, 4 (1977), 579-582.
   Google Scholar
• Pinsonneault, A.; Barki, H.; Gallupe, R. B.; and Hoppen, N. Electronic brainstorming: The illusion of productivity. Information Systems Research, 10, 2 (1999), 110-133.
   Google Scholar
• Postmes, T., and Spears, R. Deindividuation and antinormative behavior: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 3 (1998), 238-259.
   Google Scholar
• Powell, A.; Piccoli, G.; and Ives, B. Virtual teams: A review of current literature and directions for future research. Database for Advances in Information Systems, 35, 1 (2004), 6-36.
   Google Scholar
• Price, K. H. Decision responsibility, task responsibility, identifiability, and social loafing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 40, 3 (1987), 330-345.
   Google Scholar
• Price, K. H.; Harrison, D. A.; and Gavin, J. H. Withholding inputs in team contexts: Member composition, interaction processes, evaluation structure, and social loafing. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 6 (2006), 1375-1384.
   Google Scholar
• Reinig, B. A., and Shin, B. The dynamic effects of group support systems on group meetings. Journal of Management Information Systems, 19, 2 (Fall 2002), 303-325.
   Google Scholar
• Reinig, B. A.; Briggs, R.; and Nunamaker, J. F., Jr. On the measurement of ideation quality. Journal of Management Information Systems, 23, 4 (Spring 2007), 143-161.
   Google Scholar
• Remus, W. Will behavioral research on managerial decision making generalize to managers? Managerial and Decision Economics, 17, 1 (1996), 93-101.
   Google Scholar
• Rice, R., and Love, G. Electronic emotion: Socioemotional content in a computer-mediated communication network. Communication Research, 14, 1 (1987), 85-108.
   Google Scholar
• Riopelle, K.; Gluesing, J.; Alcordo, T.; Baba, M.; Britt, D.; McKether, W.; Monplaisir, L.; Ratner, H.; and Wagner, K. Context, task, and the evolution of technology use in global virtual teams. In C. B. Gibson and S. G. Cohen (eds.), Virtual Teams That Work. Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 239-264.
   Google Scholar
• Robert, L. P., Jr.; Dennis, A. R.; and Ahuja, M. K. Social capital and knowledge integration in digitally enabled teams. Information Systems Research, 19, 3 (2008), 314-334.
   Google Scholar
• Robert, L. P., Jr.; Dennis, A. R.; and Hung, Y. C. Individual swift trust and knowledge-based trust in face-to-face and virtual team members. Journal of Management Information Systems, 26, 2 (Fall 2009), 241-279.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, M. K. A social learning theory and moral disengagement analysis of criminal computer behavior: An exploratory study. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Santanen, E. L.; Briggs, R. O.; and de Vreede, G. Causal relationships in creative problem solving: Comparing facilitation interventions for ideation. Journal of Management Information Systems, 20, 4 (Spring 2004), 167-198.
   Google Scholar
• Sato, K. Trust and group size in a social dilemma. Japanese Psychological Research, 30, 2 (1988), 88-93.
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz, S. H., and Clausen, G. T. Responsibility, norms, and helping in an emergency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 2 (1970), 299-310.
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz, S. H., and Struch, N. Values, stereotypes, and intergroup antagonism. In D. Bar-Tal, C. F. Graunman, A. W. Kruglanski, and W. Stroebe (eds.), Stereotyping and Prejudice: Changing Conceptions. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1989, pp. 151-168.
   Google Scholar
• Sharda, R.; Barr, S. H.; and McDonnell, J. C. Decision support system effectiveness: A review and an empirical test. Management Science, 34, 2 (1988), 139-159.
   Google Scholar
• Shepherd, M. M.; Briggs, R. O.; Reinig, B. A.; Yen, J.; and Nunamaker, J. F., Jr. Invoking social comparison to improve electronic brainstorming: Beyond anonymity. Journal of Management Information Systems, 12, 3 (Winter 1995-96), 155-170.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, K. G.; Smith, K. A.; Olian, J. D.; Sims, H. P., Jr.; O'Bannon, D. P.; and Scully, J. A. Top management team demography and process: The role of social integration and communication. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, 3 (1994), 412-438.
   Google Scholar
• Spreitzer, G. M. Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 5 (1995), 1442-1465.
   Google Scholar
• Sproull, L., and Kiesler, S. Reducing social context cues: Electronic mail in organizational communication. Management Science, 32 (11), 1492-1512.
   Google Scholar
• Straub, D. W. Validating instruments in MIS research. MIS Quarterly, 13, 2 (1989), 147-169.
   Google Scholar
• Suleiman, J., and Watson, R. Social loafing in technology-supported teams. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 17, 4 (2008), 291-309.
   Google Scholar
• Szymanski, K., and Harkins, S. Social loafing and self-evaluation with a social standard. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 5 (1987), 891-897.
   Google Scholar
• Valacich, J. S.; Dennis, A. R.; and Nunamaker, J. F., Jr. Group size and anonymity effects on computer-mediated idea generation. Small Group Research, 23, 1 (1992), 49-73.
   Google Scholar
• Valacich, J. S.; George, J. F.; Nunamaker, J. F., Jr.; and Vogel, D. R. Physical proximity effects on computer-mediated group idea generation. Small Group Research, 25, 1 (1994), 83-104.
   Google Scholar
• Valacich, J. S.; Wheeler, B. C.; Mennecke, B. E.; and Wachter, R. The effects of numerical and logical group size on computer-mediated idea generation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 62, 3 (1995), 318-329.
   Google Scholar
• Vollum, S.; Buffington-Vollum, J.; and Longmire, D. R. Moral disengagement and attitudes about violence toward animals. Society and Animals, 12, 3 (2004), 209-235.
   Google Scholar
• Walther, J. B., and Bazarova, N. N. Misattribution in virtual groups: The effects of member distribution on self-serving bias and partner blame. Human Communication Research, 33, 1 (2007), 1-26.
   Google Scholar
• Watson, R. T. A study of group decision support system use in three and four-person groups for a preference allocation decision. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Information and Decision Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1987.
   Google Scholar
• Wiersema, M. F., and Bantel, K. A. Top management team demography and corporate strategic change. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 1 (1992), 91-121.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D.; Harkins, S.; and Latane, B. Identifiability as a deterrent to social loafing: Two cheering experiments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 2 (1981), 303-311.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D.; Nida, S. A.; Baca, L. D.; and Latane, B. Social loafing and swimming: Effects of identifiability on individual and relay performance of intercollegiate swimmers. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10, 1 (1989), 73-81.
   Google Scholar
• Zaccaro, S. J.; Peterson, C.; and Walker, S. Self-serving attributions for individual and group performance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 50, 3 (1987), 257-263.
   Google Scholar
• Zenger, T. R., and Lawrence, B. S. Organizational demography: The differential effects of age and tenure distributions on technical communication. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 2 (1989), 353-376.
   Google Scholar
• Zigurs, I.; Poole, M.; and DeSanctis, G. A study of influence in computer-mediated group decision making. MIS Quarterly, 12, 4 (1988), 625-644.
   Google Scholar