The economics, financing and implementation of HIV treatment as prevention: What will it take to get there?

References

• Althoff KN, Buchacz K, Hall HI, Zhang J, Hanna DB, Rebeiro P, Gange SJ, Moore RD, Kitahata MM, Gebo KA, Martin J, Justice AC, Horberg MA, Hogg RS, Sterling TR, Cescon A, Klein MB, Thorne JE, Crane HM, Mugavero MJ, Napravnik S, Kirk GD, Jacobson LP, Brooks JT, North American, ACCOR & Design. 2012. U.S. trends in antiretroviral therapy use, HIV RNA plasma viral loads, and cd4 t-lymphocyte cell counts among hiv-infected persons, 2000 to 2008. Annals of Internal Medicine 157: 325–335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amico P, Gobet B, Avila-Figueroa C, Aran C, De Lay P. 2012. Pattern and levels of spending allocated to hiv prevention programs in low- and middle-income countries. BMC Public Health 12: 221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apollo T. 2013. Treatment 2013: Overview — current global situation. Available at http://www.who.int/hiv/events/2013/2_apollo_introduction_v3.pdf. [accessed 12 July 2014]
   Google Scholar
• Babigumira JB, Sethi AK, Smyth KA, Singer ME. 2009. Cost effectiveness of facility-based care, home-based care and mobile clinics for provision of antiretroviral therapy in Uganda. Pharmacoeconomics 27: 963–973.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnighausen T, Bloom DE, Humair S. 2012. Economics of antiretroviral treatment vs. circumcision for HIV prevention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 109: 21271–21276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birrell PJ, Gill ON, Delpech VC, Brown AE, Desai S, Chadborn TR, Rice BD, De Angelis D. 2013. HIV incidence in men who have sex with men in England and Wales 2001-10: A nationwide population study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 13: 313–318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birungi J, Wang H, Ngolobe MH, Muldoon K, Khanakwa S, King R, Kaleebu P, Shannon K, Ochai R, Montaner J, Mills E, Laurenco L, Abdallar N, Moo D. 2012. Lack of effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy (ART) as an HIV prevention tool for serodiscordant couples in a rural ART program without viral load monitoring in Uganda. Paper presented at the 19th International AIDS Conference. July 22-27, 2012, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Bor J, Herbst AJ, Newell ML, Barnighausen T. 2013. Increases in adult life expectancy in rural South Africa: Valuing the scale-up of HIV treatment. Science 339: 961–965.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burtle D, Welfare W, Elden S, Mamvura C, Vandelanotte J, Petherick E, Walley J, Wright J. 2012. Introduction and evaluation of a ‘pre-ART care’ service in Swaziland: an operational research study. BMJ Open 2: e000195, doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cambiano V, Bertagnolio S, Jordan MR, Lundgren JD, Phillips A. 2013. Transmission of drug resistant HIV and its potential impact on mortality and treatment outcomes in resource-limited settings. Journal of Infectious Diseases 207: S57–S62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cleary SM, Mcintyre D, Boulle AM. 2008. Assessing efficiency and costs of scaling up HIV treatment. AIDS 22: S35–S42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen MS, Chen YQ, Mccauley M, Gamble T, Hosseinipour MC, Kumarasamy N, Hakim JG, Kumwenda J, Grinsztejn B, Pilotto JH, Godbole SV, Mehendale S, Chariyalertsak S, Santos BR, Mayer KH, Hoffman IF, Eshleman SH, Piwowar-Manning E, Wang L, Makhema J, Mills LA, De Bruyn G, Sanne I, Eron J, Gallant J, Havlir D, Swindells S, Ribaudo H, Elharrar V, Burns D, Taha TE, Nielsen-Saines K, Celentano D, Essex M, Fleming TR, Team HS. 2011. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. New England Journal of Medicine 365: 493–505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eaton JW, Johnson LF, Salomon JA, Barnighausen T, Bendavid E, Bershteyn A, Bloom DE, Cambiano V, Fraser C, Hontelez JA, Humair S, Klein DJ, Long EF, Phillips AN, Pretorius C, Stover J, Wenger EA, Williams BG, Hallett TB. 2012. HIV treatment as prevention: Systematic comparison of mathematical models of the potential impact of antiretroviral therapy on HIV incidence in South Africa. PLoS Medicine 9: e1001245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eaton JW, Menzies NA, Stover J, Cambiano V, Chindelevitch L, Cori A, Hontelez JAC, Humair S, Kerr CC, Klein DJ, Mishra S, Mitchell KM, Nichols BE, Vickerman P, Bakker R, Rnighausen T, Bershteyn A, Bloom DE, Boily M-C, Chang ST, Cohen T, Dodd PJ, Fraser C, Gopalappa C, Lundgren J, Martin NK, Mikkelsen E, Mountain E, Pham QD, Pickles M, Phillips A, Platt L, Pretorius C, Prudden HJ, Salomon JA, Van De Vijver DAMC, De Vlas SJ, Wagner BG, White RG, Wilson DP, Zhang L, Blandford J, Meyer-Rath G, Remme M, Revill P, Sangrujee N, Terris-Prestholt F, Doherty M, Shaffer N, Easterbrook PJ, Hirnschall G, Hallett TB. 2014. Health benefits, costs, and cost-effectiveness of earlier eligibility for adult antiretroviral therapy and expanded treatment coverage: A combined analysis of 12 mathematical models, The Lancet Global Health 2: e23–e34.
   Google Scholar
• Freedberg KA, Losina E, Weinstein MC, Paltiel AD, Cohen CJ, Seage GR, Craven DE, Zhang H, Kimmel AD, Goldie SJ. 2001. The cost effectiveness of combination antiretroviral therapy for HIV disease. New England Journal of Medicine 344: 824–831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray RH, Li X, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Nalugoda F, Watya S, Reynolds SJ, Wawer M. 2007. The impact of male circumcision on hiv incidence and cost per infection prevented: A stochastic simulation model from rakai, uganda. AIDS 21: 845–850.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grinsztejn B, Hosseinipour MC, Ribaudo HJ, Swindells S, Eron J, Chen YQ 2014. Effects of early versus delayed initiation of antiretroviral treatment on clinical outcomes of HIV-1 infection: results from the phase 3 HPTN 052 randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 14: 281–290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Habyarimana J, Mbakile B, Pop-Eleches C. 2010. The impact of hiv/aids and arv treatment on worker absenteeism implications for african firms. Journal of Human Resources 45: 809–839.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herbst AJ, Cooke GS, Barnighausen T, Kanykany A, Tanser F, Newell ML. 2009. Adult mortality and antiretroviral treatment roll-out in rural Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 87: 754–762.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogan DR, Baltussen R, Hayashi C, Lauer JA, Salomon JA. 2005. Cost effectiveness analysis of strategies to combat hiv/aids in developing countries. BMJ 331: 1431–1437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IHME (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation). 2013. The global burden of disease: Generating evidence, guiding policy. Seattle, Washington: IHME.
   Google Scholar
• Irin (Integrated Regional Information Networks). 2012. Africa: Domestic investment in HIV up but uneven. Available at http://www.irinnews.org/report/95904/africa-domestic-investment-in-hiv-up-but-uneven. [accessed 12 July 2014]
   Google Scholar
• Irin (Integrated Regional Information Networks). 2013. Uganda running out of ARVs, HIV test kits. Available at http://www.irinnews.org/report/98217/uganda-running-out-of-arvs-hiv-test-kits). [accessed 12 July 2014]
   Google Scholar
• Jamison DT, Summers LH, Alleyne G, Arrow KJ, Berkley S, Binagwaho A, Bustreo F, Evans D, Feachem RG, Frenk J, Ghosh G, Goldie SJ, Guo Y, Gupta S, Horton R, Kruk ME, Mahmoud A, Mohohlo LK, Ncube M, Pablos-Mendez A, Reddy KS, Saxenian H, Soucat A, Ulltveit-Moe KH, Yamey G. 2013. Global Health 2035: A world converging within a generation. Lancet 382: 1898–1955.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jia Z, Mao Y, Zhang F, Ruan Y, Ma Y, Li J, Guo W, Liu E, Dou Z, Zhao Y, Wang L, Li Q, Xie P, Tang H, Han J, Jin X, Xu J, Xiong R, Zhao D, Li P, Wang X, Wang L, Qing Q, Ding Z, Chen RY, Liu Z, Shao Y. 2013. Antiretroviral therapy to prevent HIV transmission in serodiscordant couples in China (2003-11): A national observational cohort study. Lancet 382: 1195–1203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Justman J, Ellman T, Donnell D, Duong Y, Reed J, Bicego G, Ehrenkranz P, Wang L, Bock N, Nkambule R. 2013. Population HIV viral load estimate in swaziland: Assessing ART program effectiveness and transmission potential. Paper presented at the 20th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Atlanta, United States, Georgia. March 2–6 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Kahn JG, Marseille E, Auvert B. 2006. Cost-effectiveness of male circumcision for HIV prevention in a South African setting. PLoS Medicine 3: e517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingdom of Swaziland Ministry of Health. 2012. Swaziland HIV incidence measurement survey (shims) – first findings report. Ministry of Health, Mbabane, Swaziland:
   Google Scholar
• Kranzer K, Lawn SD, Johnson LF, Bekker LG, Wood R. 2013. Community viral load and CD4 count distribution among people living with HIV in a South African township: Implications for treatment as prevention. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 63: 498–505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kredo T, Ford N, Adeniyi FB, Garner P. 2013. Decentralising HIV treatment in lower- and middle-income countries. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews 6: CD009987.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lamb MR, Fayorsey R, Nuwagaba-Biribonwoha H, Viola V, Mutabazi V, Alwar T, Casalini C, Elul B. 2014. High attrition before and after ART initiation among youth (15-24 years of age) enrolled in HIV care. AIDS 28: 559–568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marseille E, Giganti MJ, Mwango A, Chisembele-Taylor A, Mulenga L, Over M, Kahn JG, Stringer JS. 2012. Taking ART to scale: Determinants of the cost and cost-effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy in 45 clinical sites in Zambia. PLoS One 7: e51993.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin G, Bollinger L, Pandit-Rajani T, Nakambula R, Stover J. 2007. Costing male circumcision in Swaziland and implications for the cost-effectiveness of circumcision as an HIV intervention. Washington, DC: USAID Health Policy Initiative.
   Google Scholar
• Martin NK, Devine A, Eaton JW, Miners A, Hallett TB, Foster GR, Dore GJ, Easterbrook PJ, Legood R, Vickerman P. 2014. Modeling the impact of early antiretroviral therapy for adults coinfected with hiv and hepatitis b or c in south africa. AIDS 28: S35–S46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mbulo E. 2013. Zambia introduces rationing system for drugs to treat HIV. Alertnet -Thomson Reuters Foundation. Available at: http://allafrica.com/stories/201308220098.html [accessed 12 July 2014].
   Google Scholar
• Menzies NA, Berruti AA, Blandford JM. 2012. The determinants of HIV treatment costs in resource limited settings. PLoS One 7: e48726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra S, Mountain E, Pickles M, Vickerman P, Shastri S, Gilks C, Dhingra NK, Washington R, Becker ML, Blanchard JF, Alary M, Boily MC, Strategic Epi-ART in India Modelling Team. 2014. Exploring the population-level impact of antiretroviral treatment: The influence of baseline intervention context. AIDS 28: S61–S72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mkize V. 2013. Automated pharmacy makes life easier. Available at http://www.iol.co.za/scitech/technology/news/automated-pharmacy-makes-life-easier-1.1580762#.UwD5XrxDG9Z). [accessed 12 July 2014]
   Google Scholar
• Mulissa Z, Jerene D, Lindtjørn B. 2010. Patients present earlier and survival has improved, but pre-ART attrition is high in a six-year HIV cohort data from Ethiopia. PLoS One 5: e13268, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Aids and STI Control Programme. 2013. Kenya AIDS indicator survey 2012 preliminary report. Ministry of Health, Kenya.
   Google Scholar
• Njeuhmeli E, Forsythe S, Reed J, Opuni M, Bollinger L, Heard N, Castor D, Stover J, Farley T, Menon V, Hankins C. 2011. Voluntary medical male circumcision: Modeling the impact and cost of expanding male circumcision for HIV prevention in Eastern and Southern Africa. PLoS Medicine 8: e1001132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosyk B, Montaner JS, Colley G, Lima VD, Chan K, Heath K, Yip B, Samji H, Gilbert M, Barrios R, Gustafson R, Hogg RS, Group S. HAS. 2014. The cascade of HIV care in British Columbia, Canada, 1996-2011: A population-based retrospective cohort study. Lancet Infectious Diseases 14: 40–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development) Health Status 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips AN, Dunn D, Sabin C, Pozniak A, Matthias R, Geretti AM, Clarke J, Churchill D, Williams I, Hill T, Green H, Porter K, Scullard G, Johnson M, Easterbrook P, Gilson R, Fisher M, Loveday C, Gazzard B, Pillay D, Collaborative Group on UK, Drug Resistance HIV, Study Group. UK CHIC 2005. Long term probability of detection of HIV-1 drug resistance after starting antiretroviral therapy in routine clinical practice. AIDS 19: 487–494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pretorius C, Menzies NA, Chindelevitch L, Cohen T, Cori A, Eaton JW, Fraser C, Gopalappa C, Hallett TB, Salomon JA., Stover J, White RG, Dodd PJ. 2014. The potential effects of changing HIV treatment policy on tuberculosis outcomes in south africa: Results from three tuberculosis-HIV transmission models. AIDS 28: S25–S34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price MA, Stewart SR, Miller WC, Behets F, Dow WH, Martinson FE, Chilongozi D, Cohen MS. 2006. The cost-effectiveness of treating male trichomoniasis to avert HIV transmission in men seeking sexually transmitted disease care in Malawi. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 43: 202–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rottingen JA, Chamas C. 2012. A new deal for global health R&D? The recommendations of the Consultative Expert Working Group on Research and Development (CEWG). PLoS Medicine 9: e1001219, doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001219.
   Google Scholar
• Scott Braithwaite R, Nucifora KA, Toohey C, Kessler J, Uhler LM, Mentor SM, Keebler D, Hallett T. 2014. How do different eligibility guidelines for antiretroviral therapy affect the cost–effectiveness of routine viral load testing in sub-Saharan Africa? AIDS 28: S73–S83, doi:10.1097/QAD.0000000000000110.
   Google Scholar
• Stadeli KM, Richman DD. 2013. Rates of emergence of HIV drug resistance in resource-limited settings: A systematic review. Antiviral Therapy 18: 115–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweat M, Gregorich S, Sangiwa G, Furlonge C, Balmer D, Kamenga C, Grinstead O, Coates T. 2000. Cost-effectiveness of voluntary HIV-1 counselling and testing in reducing sexual transmission of HIV-1 in Kenya and Tanzania. Lancet 356: 113–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanser F, Barnighausen T, Grapsa E, Zaidi J, Newell ML. 2013. High coverage of ART associated with decline in risk of HIV acquisition in rural Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Science 339: 966–971.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thirumurthy H, Zivin JG. 2012. Health and labor supply in the context of HIV/AIDS: The long-run economic impacts of antiretroviral therapy. Economic Development and Cultural Change 61: 73–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS). 2013. Global report: UNAIDS report on the global aids epidemic 2013. Geneva: UNAIDS.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijk JH, van Treijen M, Janssen J, Sitali J, Manyani F, Nouwen J. 2010. Low retention rate of pre-ART HIV infected patients after successful early enrolment in HIV care, a rural Zambian experience. Paper presented at AIDS 2010 – XVIII International AIDS Conference, Vienna, July 18–23 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Vickerman P, Kumaranayake L, Balakireva O, Guinness L, Artyukh O, Semikop T, Yaremenko O, Watts C. 2006a. The cost-effectiveness of expanding harm reduction activities for injecting drug users in Odessa, Ukraine. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 33: S89–S102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vickerman P, Terris-Prestholt F, Delany S, Kumaranayake L, Rees H, Watts C. 2006b. Are targeted HIV prevention activities cost-effective in high prevalence settings? Results from a sexually transmitted infection treatment project for sex workers in Johannesburg, South Africa. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 33: S122–S132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walensky RP, Ross EL, Kumarasamy N, Wood R, Noubary F, Paltiel AD, Nakamura YM, Godbole SV, Panchia R, Sanne I, Weinstein MC, Losina E, Mayer KH, Chen YQ, Wang L, Mccauley M, Gamble T, Seage GR 3rd, Cohen MS, Freedberg KA. 2013. Cost-effectiveness of HIV treatment as prevention in serodiscordant couples. New England Journal of Medicine 369: 1715–1725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waning B, Diedrichsen E, Moon S. 2010. A lifeline to treatment: The role of Indian generic manufacturers in supplying antiretroviral medicines to developing countries. Journal of the International AIDS Society 13: 35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White RG, Orroth KK, Glynn JR, Freeman EE, Bakker R, Habbema JD, Terris-Prestholt F, Kumaranayake L, Buve A, Hayes RJ. 2008. Treating curable sexually transmitted infections to prevent HIV in Africa: Still an effective control strategy?. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 47: 346–353.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WHO (World Health Organization). 2012. Transaction prices for antiretroviral medicines from 2009 to 2012. Who AIDS medicines and diagnostics services, Global Price Reporting Mechanism, Summary Report November 2012. Geneva: WHO.
   Google Scholar
• WHO (World Health Organization), UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS). 2013. Global update on HIV treatment 2013: Results, impact and opportunities. Geneva: WHO.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson DP. 2012. HIV treatment as prevention: Natural experiments highlight limits of antiretroviral treatment as HIV prevention. PLoS Medicine 9: e1001231, doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodd SL, Grosskurth H, Levin J, Amuron B, Namara G, Birunghi J, Coutinho A, Jaffar S. 2014. Home-based versus clinic-based care for patients starting antiretroviral therapy with low CD4+ cell counts: Findings from a cluster-randomized trial. AIDS 28: 569–576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2012a. Burundi: World Bank to finance better healthcare results for 3.5 million people and help promote economic growth. Available at http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2012/10/23/burundi-world-bank-finance-better-healthcare-results-and-help-promote-economic-growth. [accessed 12 July 2014]
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2012b. World development indicators 2012. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
   Google Scholar