On Doing the “Impossible”: Inferring that a Putative Causal Relationship does not Exist

References

• Simon H. A. Spurious correlation: a causal analysis. Wiley, New York 1954, Reprinted in Models of Man: Social and Rational (1957)
   Google Scholar
• Feinstein A. R. Clinical Epidemiology: The Architecture of Clinical Research. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia 1985
   Google Scholar
• Hall W. A simplified logic of causal inference. Australian and New Zealand Journal of psychiatry 1987; 21: 501–513, 1987
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feinstein A. R. Clinical Biostatistics. C.V. Mosby, St Louis 1977
   Google Scholar
• Lave L. B., Seskin E. P. Epidemiology, causality and public policy. American Scientist 1979; 67: 178–186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMaster University Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics. How to read clinical journals, IV: to determine etiology and causation. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1981; 124: 985–990
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sellitz C., Jahoda M., Deutsche M., Cook S. N. Research Methods in Social Relations Revised one volume edition. Methuen, London 1965
   Google Scholar
• Tukey J. W. The Collected Works of John W. Tukey. Volume IV: Philosophy and Principles of Data Analysis 1965–1986, L. V. Jones. Wadsworth and Brooks Cole, Monterey, California 1986
   Google Scholar
• Popper K. R. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Hutchinson, London 1959
   Google Scholar
• Popper K. R. Conjectures and Refutations. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London 1963
   Google Scholar
• Greenwald A. G. Consequences of prejudice against the null hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin 1975; 82: 1–20
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook T. D., Campbell D. T. Quasi-Experimentation: Design and Analysis Issues for Field Settings. Rand Mc-Nally, Chicago 1979
   Google Scholar
• Fisher R. A. The Design of Experiments. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh 1949
   Google Scholar
• Bird K. D., Hall W. Statistical power in psychiatric research. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1986; 20: 189–200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serlin R. C., Lapsley D. K. Rationality in psychological research: The Good Enough Principle. American Psychologist 1985; 40: 73–83
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Revised Edition. Academic Press, New York 1977
   Google Scholar
• Hanson N. R. What I Do Not Believe and Other Essays, S. Toulmin, H. Woolfl. D. Reidel Publishing Company, DordrechtHolland 1971
   Google Scholar
• Hall W., Heather B. B. The issue of statistical power in comparative evaluations of minimal and intensive controlled drinking interventions. Addictive Behaviors 1990, (in press)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glass G. V., Smith M. L., McGaw B. Meta-analysis in Social Research. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills 1981
   Google Scholar
• Hunter J. E., Schmidt F. L. Meta-Analysis: Cumulating Across Studies. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills 1982
   Google Scholar
• Sackett D. L. Bias in analytic research. Journal of Chronic Diseases 1979; 32: 51–63
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frankel H. The continental drift debate. Scientific Controversies: Case Studies in the Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology, H. T. Engel-hardt, A. L. Caplan. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987
   Google Scholar
• James E. W. On dismissing astrology and other irrationalities. Philosophy of Science and the Occult, P Grim. State University of New York Press, Albany 1982
   Google Scholar
• Kelly I. W. Astrology, cosmobiology and humanistic astrology. Philosophy of Science and the Occult, P Grim. State University of New York Press, Albany 1982
   Google Scholar
• Judgment Under Uncertainty: heuristics and biases, D. Kahneman, D Slovic, A. Tversky. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1982
   Google Scholar
• Nisbett R. E., Ross L. Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgement. Prentice-Hall, Engelwood Cliffs, NJ 1980
   Google Scholar
• Philosophy of Science and the Occult, P. Grim. State University of New York Press, Albany 1982
   Google Scholar
• Diaconis P. Statistical problems in ESP research. Science 1978; 201: 131–136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall W., Bird K. D. The problem of multiple inference in psychiatric research. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1985; 19: 265–274
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cioffi F. Freud and the idea of a pseudo-science. Explanation in the Behavioural Sciences, R. Borger, F. Cioffi. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1970
   Google Scholar
• Einfeld S., Molony H., Hall W. Autism is not associated with the Fragile X syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics 1989; 34: 187–193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs P. A., Mayer M., Abruzzo M A. Studies of the fragile(X) syndrome in populations of mentally retarded individuals in Hawaii. American Journal of Medical Genetics 1986; 28: 70–99
   Google Scholar
• The Fragile-X Syndrome, R. J. Hagerman, P. McBogg. Spectra Publishing Co, Dillon, Colorado 1983
   Google Scholar
• Turner G., Jacobs P. Marker (X)-linked mental retardation. Advances in Human Genetics, H Hams, K. Hirschorn. Plenum Press, New York 1983; Vol 13
   Google Scholar
• Brown W. T., Jenkins E. C., Friedman E., Brooks J., Wisniewski K., Simhachalam R., French J. Autism is associated with the fragile X syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1982; 12: 303–307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fryns J. P., Kleczkowaka A., Van den Berghe H. The Psychological profile of the fragile x syndrome. Clinical Genetics 1984; 25: 131–134
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hagerman R. J., Jackson A. W., Levitas A., Rimland B., Braden M. An analysis of autism in fifty males with the fragile X syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics 1986; 23: 359–374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahlstrom I., Gillberg C., Gustavson K. H., Holmgren G. Infantile autism and the fragile X. A Swedish multicenter study. American Journal of Medical Genetics 1986; 23: 403–408
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parks S. L. The assessment of autistic children: A selective review of available instruments. Journal of Autistic and Developmental Disorders 1983; 17: 175–194
   Google Scholar
• Rutter M., Schopler E. Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders: Concepts and Diagnostic Issues. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1987; 17(2)159–185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisch G. S., Cohen I. L., Wolf E. G., Friedman E. The Autistic Descriptors Checklist (ADC): A preliminary report. (Letter). Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders 1985; 15: 233–234
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. APA, Washington, DC 1987, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual DSM-111-R.
   Google Scholar
• Krug D. A., Arick J. R., Allmond P. J. Behavior Checklist for identifying severely handicapped individuals with high levels of autistic behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 1980; 21: 221–224
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman E., Wolf E. G., Cohen I. L, Fisch G. S. Autistic Descriptors Checklist ADC, Parent Interview Edition and Scoring Guidelines. New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, New York 1985
   Google Scholar
• Shapiro L. R., Petterson I. M., Shapiro D. A., Wilmot P. L., Casamassima A. C. Cytogenetic diagnosis of the fragile X syndrome: Yields and trends. Human Genetics (Supplement) 1988; 43: A123
   Google Scholar