619
Views
54
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Astrocytes and Microglia: Responses to Neuropathological Conditions

, , &
Pages 589-597 | Received 14 Feb 2011, Published online: 09 Aug 2011

REFERENCES

  • Acarin, L., Paris, J., Gonzalez, B., (2002). Glial expression of small heat shock proteins following an excitotoxic lesion in the immature rat brain. Glia, 38, 1–14.
  • Albrecht, P. J., Dahl, J. P., Stoltzfus, O. K., (2002). Ciliary neurotrophic factor activates spinal cord astrocytes stimulating their production and release of fibroblast growth factor-2 to increase motor neuron survival. Experimental Neurology, 173, 46–62.
  • Allen, N. J., & Barres, B. A. (2005). Signaling between glia and neurons: Focus on synaptic plasticity. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 15, 542–548.
  • Anilkumar, N., Weber, R., Zhang, M., (2008). Nox4 and Nox2 NADPH oxidases mediate distinct cellular redox signaling responses to agonist stimulation. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 28, 1347–1354.
  • Ashe, P. C., & Berry, M. D. (2003). Apoptotic signaling cascades. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 27, 199–214.
  • Belin, M. F., Didier-Bazes, M., Akaoka, H., (1997). Changes in astrocytic glutamate catabolism enzymes following neuronal degeneration or viral infection. Glia, 21, 154–161.
  • Bernhardi, R. V. (2007). Glial cell dysregulation: A new perspective on Alzheimer disease. Neurotoxicity Research, 12, 215–232.
  • Bespalov, M. M., & Saarma, M. (2007). GDNF family receptor complexes are emerging drug targets. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 28, 68–74.
  • Bhat, N. R., Zhang, P., & Bhat, A. N. (1999). Cytokine induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase in an oligodendrocyte cell line: Role of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. Journal of Neurochemistry, 72, 472–478.
  • Bi, J., Wang, X. B., Chen, L., (2008). Catalpol protects mesencephalic neurons against MPTP induced neurotoxicity via attenuation of mitochondrial dysfunction and MAO-B activity. Toxicology In Vitro, 22, 1883–1889.
  • Blanc, E. M., Keller, J. N., Fernandez, S., (1998). 4-hydroxynonenal a lipid peroxidation product impairs glutamate transport in cortical astrocytes. Glia, 22, 149–160.
  • Block, M. L., & Hong, J. S. (2007). Chronic microglial activation and progressive dopaminergic neurotoxicity. Biochemical Society Transactions, 35, 1127–1132.
  • Bohn, M. C. (2004). Motoneurons crave glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. Experimental Neurology, 190, 263–275.
  • Boillee, S., & Cleveland, D. W. (2008). Revisiting oxidative damage in ALS: Microglia, Nox, and mutant SOD1. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 118, 474–478.
  • Boscá, L., & Hortelano, S. (1999). Mechanisms of nitric oxide-dependent apoptosis: Involvement of mitochondrial mediators. Cellular Signalling, 11, 239–244.
  • Brown, G. C., & Borutaite, V. (2004). Inhibition of mitochondrial complex-I by nitric oxide peroxynitrite and s-nitrosothiols. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1658, 44–49.
  • Bruno, V., Battaglia, G., & Copani, A. (2001). Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtypes as targets for neuroprotective drugs. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 21, 1013–1033.
  • Carreras, M. C., Franco, M. C., Peralta, J. G., (2004). Nitric oxide, complex I, and the modulation of mitochondrial reactive species in biology and disease. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 25, 125–139.
  • Chao, C. C., & Lee, E. H. (1999). Neuroprotective mechanism of glial cell line derived neurotrophic factors on dopamine neurons: Role of antioxidation. Neuropharmacology, 38, 913–916.
  • Chen, Y., Vartiainen, N. E., Ying, W., (2001). Astrocytes protect neurons from nitric oxide toxicity by a glutathione-dependent mechanism. Journal of Neurochemistry, 77, 1601–1610.
  • Chenevier-Gobeaux, C., Simonneau, C., Therond, P., (2007). Implication of cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) in the regulation of human synoviocyte NADPH oxidase (Nox2) activity. Life Science, 81, 1050–1058.
  • Chiang, C. S., Powell, H. C., Gold, L. H., (1996). Macrophage/microglial mediated primary demyelination and motor disease induced by the central nervous system production of interleukin-3 in transgenic mice. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 97, 1512–1524.
  • Chiarini, A., Dal Pra, I., Menapace, L., (2005). Soluble amyloid beta-peptide and myelin basic protein strongly stimulate, alone and in synergism with combined proinflammatory cytokines, the expression of functional nitric oxide synthase-2 in normal adult human astrocytes. International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 16, 801–807.
  • Chuenkova, M. V., & Pereira, M. A. (2000). A trypanosomal protein synergizes with the cytokines ciliary neurotrophic factor and leukemia inhibitory factor to prevent apoptosis of neuronal cells. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 11, 1487–1498.
  • Chung, Y. C., Kim, S. R., & Jin, B. K. (2010). Paroxetine prevents loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons by inhibiting brain inflammation and oxidative stress in an experimental model of Parkinson's disease. The Journal of Immunology, 1852, 1230–1237.
  • Condino-Neto, A., & Newburger, P. E. (1998). NADPH oxidase activity and cytochrome b558 content of human Epstein–Barr-virus-transformed B lymphocytes correlate with expression of genes encoding components of the oxidase system. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 360, 158–164.
  • De Bernardo, S., Canals, S., Casarejos, M. J., (2004). Role of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase in neuronal cell death induced by glutathione depletion in neuron/glia mesencephalic cultures. Journal of Neurochemistry, 91, 667–682.
  • De Keulenaer, G. W., Alexander, R. W., Ushio-Fukai, M., (1998). Tumour necrosis factor alpha activates a p22phox-based NADH oxidase in vascular smooth muscle. Biochemical Journal, 329, 653–657.
  • Desagher, S., Glowinski, J., & Premont, J. (1996). Astrocytes protect neurons from hydrogen peroxide toxicity. The Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 2553–2562.
  • Dimmeler, S., & Zeiher, A. M. (1997). Nitric oxide and apoptosis: Another paradigm for the double-edged role of nitric oxide. Nitric Oxide, 1, 275–281.
  • Doetsch F. (2003) The glial identity of neural stem cells. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 1127–1134.
  • D'onofrio, M., Cuomo, L., Battaglia, G., (2001). Neuroprotection mediated by glial group-II metabotropic glutamate receptors requires the activation of the map kinase and the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase pathways. Journal of Neurochemistry, 78, 435–445.
  • Dringen, R., Gutterer, J. M., & Hirrlinger, J. (2000). Glutathione metabolism in brain metabolic interaction between astrocytes and neurons in the defense against reactive oxygen species. European Journal of Biochemistry, 267, 4912–4916.
  • Dringen, R., Pfeiffer, B., & Hamprecht, B. (1999). Synthesis of the antioxidant glutathione in neurons: Supply by astrocytes of cys-gly as precursor for neuronal glutathione. The Journal of Neuroscience, 19, 562–569.
  • Drukarch, B., Schepens, E., Jongenelen, C. A., (1997). Astrocyte-mediated enhancement of neuronal survival is abolished by glutathione deficiency. Brain Research, 770, 123–130.
  • Drukarch, B., Schepens, E., Stoof, J. C., (1998). Astrocyte enhanced neuronal survival is mediated by scavenging of extracellular reactive oxygen species. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 25, 217–220.
  • Dutta, G., Zhang, P., & Liu, B. (2008). The lipopolysaccharide Parkinson's disease animal model: Mechanistic studies and drug discovery. Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology, 22, 453–464.
  • Eddleston, M., & Mucke, L. (1993). Molecular profile of reactive astrocytes—implications for their role in neurologic disease. Neuroscience, 54, 15–36.
  • Esiri, M. M. (2007). The interplay between inflammation and neurodegeneration in CNS disease. The Journal of Neuroimmunology, 184, 4–16.
  • Feuerstein, G. Z., Liu, T., & Barone, F. C. (1994). Cytokines inflammation and brain injury: Role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Cerebrovascular and Brain Metabolism Reviews, 6, 341–360.
  • Frey, R. S., Rahman, A., Kefer, J. C, (2002). PKCzeta regulates TNF-alpha-induced activation of NADPH oxidase in endothelial cells. Circulation Research, 90, 1012–1019.
  • Garbayo, E., Aymerich, M. S., Ansorena, E, (2006). Neuroprotective and neurorestorative therapies for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Anales del Sistema Sanitario de Navarra, 29, 325–335.
  • Gauss, K. A., Nelson-Overton, L. K., Siemsen, D. W., (2007). Role of NF-kappaB in transcriptional regulation of the phagocyte NADPH oxidase by tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 82, 729–741.
  • Giulian, D., Li, J., Li, X., (1994). The impact of microglia-derived cytokines upon gliosis in the CNS. Developmental Neuroscience, 16, 128–136.
  • Glozman, S., & Yavin, E. (1997). Lipid peroxides are generated by the fetal rat brain after episodes of global ischemia in utero. Neurochemical Research, 22, 201–208.
  • Gomes, F. C., Sousa Vde, O., & Romao, L. (2005). Emerging roles for TGF-beta1 in nervous system development. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23, 413–424.
  • Gong, L., Wyatt, R. J., Baker, I., (1999). Brain-derived and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factors protect a catecholaminergic cell line from dopamine-induced cell death. Neuroscience Letters, 263, 153–156.
  • Goodwin, J. L., Uemura, E., & Cunnick, J. E. (1995). Microglial release of nitric oxide by the synergistic action of beta-amyloid and IFN-gamma. Brain Research, 692, 207–214.
  • Goss, J. R., O'Malley, M. E., Zou, L., (1998) Astrocytes are the major source of nerve growth factor upregulation following traumatic brain injury in the rat. Experimental Neurology, 149, 301–309.
  • Grant, M. M., Barber, V. S., & Griffiths H. R. (2005). The presence of ascorbate induces expression of brain derived neurotrophic factor in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells after peroxide insult, which is associated with increased survival. Proteomics, 5, 534–540.
  • Gunasingh, M. J., Philip, J. E., Ashok, B. S., (2008). Melatonin prevents amyloid protofibrillar induced oxidative imbalance and biogenic amine catabolism. Life Science, 83, 96–102.
  • Hashioka, S., Klegeris, A., & Monji, A. (2007). Antidepressants inhibit interferon-gamma-induced microglial production of IL-6 and nitric oxide. Experimental Neurology, 206, 33–42.
  • Haydon, P. G. (2001). Glia: Listening and talking to the synapse. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 185–193.
  • Heaton, M. B., Paiva, M., Madorsky, I., (2003). Effects of ethanol on neurotrophic factors, apoptosis-related proteins, endogenous antioxidants, and reactive oxygen species in neonatal striatum: Relationship to periods of vulnerability. Brain Research Development Brain Research, 140, 237–252.
  • Herrera-Molina, R., & Bernhardi, V. R. (2005). Transforming growth factor-beta 1 produced by hippocampal cells modulates microglial reactivity in culture. Neurobiology of Disease, 19, 229–236.
  • Holm, N. R., Christophersen, P., Hounsgaard, J., (2002). CNTF inhibits high voltage activated Ca2 +currents in fetal mouse cortical neurons. Journal of Neurochemistry, 82, 495–503.
  • Ji, J. Z., Elyaman, W., Yip, H. K., (2004). CNTF promotes survival of retinal ganglion cells after induction of ocular hypertension in rats: The possible involvement of stat3 pathway. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 19, 265–272.
  • Jin, Z., & El-Deiry, W. S. (2005). Overview of cell death signaling pathways. Cancer Biology and Therapy, 4, 139–163.
  • Joosten, E. A., & Houweling, D. A. (2004). Local acute application of BDNF in the lesioned spinal cord anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects. Neuroreport, 15, 1163–1166.
  • Kamizato, M., Nishida, K., Masuda, K., (2009). Interleukin 10 inhibits interferon gamma- and tumor necrosis factor alpha-stimulated activation of NADPH oxidase 1 in human colonic epithelial cells and the mouse colon. Journal of Gastroenterology, 44, 1172–1184.
  • Kang, J., Park, E. J., Jou, I., (2001). Reactive oxygen species mediate A beta (25–35) induced activation of BV-2 microglia. Neuroreport, 12, 1449–1452.
  • Kirschner, P. B., Jenkins, B. G., Schulz, J. B., (1996). NGF, BDNF and NT-5, but not NT-3 protect against MPP+ toxicity and oxidative stress in neonatal animals. Brain Research, 713, 178–185.
  • Kraft, A. D., McPherson, C. A., & Harry, G. J. (2009). Heterogeneity of microglia and TNF signaling as determinants for neuronal death or survival. Neurotoxicology, 30, 785–793.
  • Kuhle, J., Lindberg, R. L., Regeniter A., (2009). Increased levels of inflammatory chemokines in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. European Journal of Neurology, 16, 771–774.
  • Labie, C., Lafon, C., & Marmouget, C. (1999). Effect of the neuroprotective compound SR57746A on nerve growth factor synthesis in cultured astrocytes from neonatal rat cortex. British Journal of Pharmacology, 127, 139–144.
  • Le, R., & Esquenazi, S. (2002). Astrocytes mediate cerebral cortical neuronal axon and dendrite growth in part by release of fibroblast growth factor. Neurology Research, 24, 81–92.
  • Lee, M., Schwab, C., Yu, S., (2009). Astrocytes produce the antiinflammatory and neuroprotective agent hydrogen sulfide. Neurobiology of Aging, 30, 1523–1534.
  • Lee, Y. J., Han, S. B., Nam, S. Y., (2010). Inflammation and Alzheimer's disease. Archives of Pharmacal Research, 33, 1539–1556.
  • Li, L., He, Q., Huang, X., (2010). NOX3-derived reactive oxygen species promote TNF-alpha-induced reductions in hepatocyte glycogen levels via a JNK pathway. FEBS Letters, 584, 995–1000.
  • Li, W., Brakefield, D., Pan, Y., (2007). Muscle-derived but not centrally derived transgene GDNF is neuroprotective in G93A-SOD1 mouse model of ALS. Experimental Neurology, 203, 457–471.
  • Lin, B., Ginsberg, M. D., Busto, R., (1998). Sequential analysis of subacute and chronic neuronal astrocytic and microglial alterations after transient global ischemia in rats. Acta Neuropathologica, 95, 511–523.
  • Liu, B., Du, L., & Hong, J. S. (2000). Naloxone protects rat dopaminergic neurons against inflammatory damage through inhibition of microglia activation and superoxide generation. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 293, 607–617.
  • Liu, B., Gao, H. M., Wang, J. Y., Jeohn, G. H., Cooper, C. L., & Hong, J. S. (2002). Role of nitric oxide in inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration. New York Academy of Sciences, 962, 318–331.
  • Liu, M. H., Lin, Y. S., Sheu, S. Y, (2009). Anti-inflammatory effects of daidzein on primary astroglial cell culture. Nutritional Neuroscience, 12, 123–134.
  • Maragakis, N. J., & Rothstein, J. D. (2006). Mechanisms of disease: Astrocytes in neurodegenerative disease. Nature Clinical Practice Neurology, 2, 679–689.
  • Markham, A., Cameron, I., Franklin, P., (2004). BDNF increases rat brain mitochondrial respiratory coupling at complex I, but not complex II. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 1189–1196.
  • Matarredona, E. R., Santiago, M., Venero, J. L., (2001). Group II metabotropic glutamate receptor activation protects striatal dopaminergic nerve terminals against MPP+-induced neurotoxicity along with brain-derived neurotrophic factor induction. Journal of Neurochemistry, 76, 351–360.
  • Mattson, M. P., Lovell, M. A., Furukawa, K., (1995). Neurotrophic factors attenuate glutamate-induced accumulation of peroxides, elevation of intracellular Ca2 +concentration, and neurotoxicity and increase antioxidant enzyme activities in hippocampal neurons. Journal of Neurochemistry, 65, 1740–1751.
  • McCoy, M. K., & Tansey, M. G. (2008). TNF signaling inhibition in the CNS: Implications for normal brain function and neurodegenerative disease. Journal of Neuroinflammation, 17(5), 45.
  • McGeer, P. L., & McGeer, E. G. (2008). Glial reactions in Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders, 23, 474–483.
  • McNaught, K. S., & Jenner, P. (2000). Dysfunction of rat forebrain astrocytes in culture alters cytokine and neurotrophic factor release. Neuroscience Letters, 285, 61–65.
  • Mena, M. A., de Bernardo, S., Casarejos, M. J., (2002). The role of astroglia on the survival of dopamine neurons. Molecular Neurobiology, 25, 245–263.
  • Mizuta, I., Ohta, M., Ohta, K., (2001). Riluzole stimulates nerve growth factor brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor synthesis in cultured mouse astrocytes. Neuroscience Letters, 310, 117–120.
  • Moe, K. T., Aulia, S., Jiang, F., (2006). Differential upregulation of Nox homologues of NADPH oxidase by tumor necrosis factor-alpha in human aortic smooth muscle and embryonic kidney cells. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, 10, 231–239.
  • Moncada, S., & Higgs, E. A. (2006). The discovery of nitric oxide and its role in vascular biology. British Journal of Pharmacology, 147, S193–S201.
  • Morgan, J. M., & Liu, Z. G. (2010). Reactive oxygen species in TNF-α induced signaling and cell death. Molecular Cell, 30, 1–12.
  • Nagatsu, T., Mogi, M., Ichinose, H., (2000). Changes in cytokines and neurotrophins in Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neural Transmission 60(Suppl.), 277–290.
  • Nagatsu, T., & Sawada, M. (2005). Inflammatory process in Parkinson's disease: Role for cytokines. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 11, 999–1016.
  • Nakazawa, T., Morii, H., Tamai, M., (2005). Selective upregulation of rb3/stathmin4 by ciliary neurotrophic factor following optic nerve axotomy. Brain Research, 1061, 97–106.
  • Nayak, D., Huo, Y., Kwang, W. X., (2010). Sphingosine kinase 1 regulates the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide in activated microglia. Neuroscience, 166, 132–144.
  • Nedergaard, M., Rodríguez, J. J., & Verkhratsky, A. (2010). Glial calcium and diseases of the nervous system. Cell Calcium, 47, 140–149.
  • Newburger, P. E., Dai, Q., & Whitney, C. (1991). In vitro regulation of human phagocyte cytochrome b heavy and light chain gene expression by bacterial lipopolysaccharide and recombinant human cytokines. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 266, 16171–16177.
  • Ohta, K., Fujinami, A., Kuno, S., (2004). Cabergoline stimulates synthesis and secretion of nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor by mouse astrocytes in primary culture. Pharmacology, 71, 162–168.
  • Ohta, M., Mizuta, I., Ohta, K., (2000). Apomorphine up-regulates NGF and GDNF synthesis in cultured mouse astrocytes. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 272, 18–22.
  • Olivieri, G., Otten, U., Meier, F., (2003). Beta-amyloid modulates tyrosine kinase B receptor expression in SHSY5Y neuroblastoma cells: Influence of the antioxidant melatonin. Neuroscience, 120, 659–665.
  • Onyango, I. G., Tuttle, J. B., & Bennett, J. P., Jr. (2005). Brain-derived growth factor and glial cell line-derived growth factor use distinct intracellular signaling pathways to protect PD cybrids from H2O2-induced neuronal death. Neurobiology of Disease, 20, 141–154.
  • Orellana, D. I., Quintanilla, R. A., & Maccioni, R. B. (2007). Neuroprotective effect of TNF-alpha against the beta-amyloid neurotoxicity mediated by cdk5 kinase. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1773, 254–263.
  • Park, K. W., Baik, H. H., & Jin, B. K. (2008). Interleukin-4-induced oxidative stress via microglial NADPH oxidase contributes to the death of hippocampal neurons in vivo. Current Aging Science, 1, 192–201.
  • Pataky, D. M., Borisoff, J. F., Fernandes, K. J., (2000). Fibroblast growth factor treatment produces differential effects on survival and neurite outgrowth from identified bulbospinal neurons in vitro. Experimental Neurology, 163, 357–372.
  • Pehar, M., Cassina, P., Vargas, M. R., Castellanos, R., Viera, L., Beckman J.S., Estevez A.G., Barbeito L. (2004). Astrocytic production of nerve growth factor in motor neuron apoptosis: Implications for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Journal of Neurochemistry, 89, 464–473.
  • Peuchen, S., Bolanos, J. P., Heales, S. J., (1997). Interrelationships between astrocyte function, oxidative stress and antioxidant status within the central nervous system. Progress in Neurobiology, 52, 261–281.
  • Przedborski, S. (2010). Inflammation and Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. Movement Disorders, 25, S55–S57.
  • Qin, B., Cartier, L., Dubois-Dauphin, M., (2006). A key role for the microglial NADPH oxidase in APP-dependent killing of neurons. Neurobiology of Aging, 27, 1577–1587.
  • Qin, L., Wu, X., Block, M. L., Liu, Y., Breese, G. R., Hong, J. S., (2007). Systemic LPS causes chronic neuroinflammation and progressive neurodegeneration. Glia, 55, 453–462.
  • Ridet, J. L., Malhotra, S. K., Privat, A., (1997). Reactive astrocytes: Cellular and molecular cues to biological function. Trends Neuroscience, 20, 570–577.
  • Rojo, L. E., Fernandez, J. A., Maccioni, A. A., (2008). Neuroinflammation: Implications for the pathogenesis and molecular diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Archives of Medical Research, 39, 1–16.
  • Rossi, F., & Bianchini, E. (1996). Synergistic induction of nitric oxide by beta-amyloid and cytokines in astrocytes. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 225, 474–478.
  • Saavedra, A., Baltazar, G., Santos, P., (2006). Selective injury to dopaminergic neurons up-regulates GDNF in substantia nigra postnatal cell cultures: Role of neuron–glia crosstalk. Neurobiology of Disease, 23, 533–542.
  • Sandhu, J. K., Gardaneh, M., Iwasiow, R., (2009). Astrocyte-secreted GDNF and glutathione antioxidant system protect neurons against 6OHDA cytotoxicity. Neurobiology of Disease, 33, 405–414.
  • Savaskan, N. E., Borchert, A., Brauer, A. U., (2007). Role for glutathione peroxidase-4 in brain development and neuronal apoptosis: Specific induction of enzyme expression in reactive astrocytes following brain injury. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 43, 191–201.
  • Seifert, G., Schilling, K., & Steinhauser, C. (2006). Astrocyte dysfunction in neurological disorders: A molecular perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 194–206.
  • Semkova, I., Wolz, P., Schilling, M., (1996). Selegiline enhances NGF synthesis and protects central nervous system neurons from excitotoxic and ischemic damage. European Journal of Pharmacology, 315, 19–30.
  • Sharma, J. N., Al-Omran, A., & Parvathy, S. S. (2007). Role of nitric oxide in inflammatory diseases. Inflammopharmacology, 15, 252–259.
  • Shimohama, S., Tanino, H., Kawakami, N., (2000). Activation of NADPH oxidase in Alzheimer's disease brains. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 273, 5–9.
  • Singh, S., Das, T., Ravindran, A., Chaturvedi, R. K., (2005). Involvement of nitric oxide in neurodegeneration: A study on the experimental models of Parkinson's disease. Redox Report, 10, 103–109.
  • Singh, S., & Dikshit, M. (2007). Apoptotic neuronal death in Parkinson's disease: Involvement of nitric oxide. Brain Research Reviews, 54, 233–250.
  • Singh, S., Kumar, S., & Dikshit, M. (2010). Involvement of mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and nitric oxide synthase in 6-hydroxydopamine and lipopolysacchride induced dopaminergic neuronal death. Redox Report, 15, 1–8.
  • Skaper, S. D., Ancona, B., Facci, L., (1998). Melatonin prevents the delayed death of hippocampal neurons induced by enhanced excitatory neurotransmission and the nitridergic pathway. FASEB Journal, 12, 725–731.
  • Sofroniew, M. V., & Vinters, H. V. (2010). Astrocytes: Biology and pathology. Acta Neuropathology, 119, 7–35.
  • Spina, M. B., Squinto, S. P., Miller, J., (1992). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor protects dopamine neurons against 6-hydroxydopamine and N-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion toxicity: Involvement of the glutathione system. Journal of Neurochemistry, 59, 99–106.
  • Swarnkar, S., Tyagi, E., Agrawal, R., (2009). A comparative study on oxidative stress induced by LPS and rotenone in homogenates of rat brain regions. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 27, 219–224.
  • Szelényi, J. (2001). Cytokines and the central nervous system. Brain Research Bulletin, 54, 329–338.
  • Takuma, K., Baba, A., & Matsuda, T. (2004). Astrocyte apoptosis: Implications for neuroprotection. Progress in Neurobiology, 72, 111–127.
  • Takuma, K., Yoshida, T., Lee, E., (2000). CV-2619 protects cultured astrocytes against reperfusion injury via nerve growth factor production. European Journal of Pharmacology, 406, 333–339.
  • Tang, L. L., Wang, R., & Tang, X. C. (2005). Huperzine A protects SHSY5Y neuroblastoma cells against oxidative stress damage via nerve growth factor production. European Journal of Pharmacology, 519, 9–15.
  • Temporin K., Tanaka H., Kuroda Y., (2008). Interleukin-1 beta promotes sensory nerve regeneration after sciatic nerve injury. Neuroscience Letters, 440, 130–133.
  • Valles, S. L., Dolz-Gaiton, P., Gambini, J., (2010). Estradiol or genistein prevent Alzheimer's disease-associated inflammation correlating with an increase PPAR gamma expression in cultured astrocytes. Brain Research, 1312, 138–144.
  • Venters, H. D., Dantzer, R., & Kelley, K. W. (2000). A new concept in neurodegeneration: TNFalpha is a silencer of survival signals. Trends Neuroscience, 23, 175–180.
  • Vogt, C., Hailer, N. P., Ghadban, C., (2008). Successful inhibition of excitotoxic neuronal damage and microglial activation after delayed application of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist. The Journal of Neuroscience Research, 86, 3314–3321.
  • Wiggins, A. K., Shen, P. J., Gundlach, A. L. (2003). Delayed but prolonged increases in astrocytic clusterin (ApoJ) mRNA expression following acute cortical spreading depression in the rat: Evidence for a role of clusterin in ischemic tolerance. Brain Research Molecular Brain Research, 114, 20–30.
  • Wilde, G. J., Pringle, A. K., Sundstrom, L. E., (2000). Attenuation and augmentation of ischaemia-related neuronal death by tumour necrosis factor-alpha in vitro. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 12, 3863–3870.
  • Wilson, J. X. (1997). Antioxidant defense of the brain: A role for astrocytes. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 75, 1149–1163.
  • Wyss-Coray, T. (2006). TGF-beta pathway as a potential target in neurodegeneration and Alzheimer's. Current Alzheimer Research, 3, 191–195.
  • Yamamoto, M., Kiyota, T., Horiba, M., (2007). Interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha regulate amyloid-beta plaque deposition and beta-secretase expression in Swedish mutant APP transgenic mice. American Journal of Pathology, 170, 680–692.
  • Yoshida, L. S., & Tsunawaki, S. (2008). Expression of NADPH oxidases and enhanced H2O2-generating activity in human coronary artery endothelial cells upon induction with tumor necrosis factor-alpha. International Immunopharmacology, 8, 1377–1385.
  • Zhao, W., Xie, W., Xiao, Q., (2006). Protective effects of an anti-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-4, on motoneuron toxicity induced by activated microglia. Journal of Neurochemistry, 99, 1176–1187.
  • Zheng, L. T., Ock, J., Kwon, B. M., & Suk, K. (2008). Suppressive effects of flavonoid fisetin on lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation and neurotoxicity. International Immunopharmacology, 8, 484–494.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.