Microbiota in health and irritable bowel syndrome: current knowledge, perspectives and therapeutic options

Reference

• Kuramitsu HK, He X, Lux R, Anderson MH, Shi W. Interspecies interactions within oral microbial communities. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2007;71:653–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerritsen J, Smidt H, Rijkers GT, de Vos WM. Intestinal microbiota in human health and disease: the impact of probiotics. Genes Nutr 2011;6:209–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penders J, Thijs C, Vink C, Stelma FF, Snijders B, Kummeling I, et al. Factors influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiota in early infancy. Pediatrics 2006;118:511–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young VB. The intestinal microbiota in health and disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2011;28:63–9.
   Google Scholar
• Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Hamady M, Fraser-Liggett CM, Knight R, Gordon JI. The human microbiome project. Nature 2007;449:804–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng J, Palva AM, de Vos WM, Satokari R. Contribution of the intestinal microbiota to human health: from birth to 100 years of age. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2013;358:323–46.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sanz Y. Gut microbiota and probiotics in maternal and infant health. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;94:2000S–5S.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bezirtzoglou E. The intestinal microflora during the first weeks of life. Anaerobe 1997;3:173–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roger LC, McCartney AL. Longitudinal investigation of the faecal microbiota of healthy full-term infants using fluorescence in situ hybridization and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Microbiology 2010;156:3317–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roger LC, Costabile A, Holland DT, Hoyles L, McCartney AL. Examination of faecal Bifidobacterium populations in breast- and formula-fed infants during the first 18 months of life. Microbiology 2010;156:3329–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adlerberth I, Wold AE. Establishment of the gut microbiota in Western infants. Acta Paediatr 2009;98:229–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig JE, Spor A, Scalfone N, Fricker AD, Stombaugh J, Knight R, et al. Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011;108:4578–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer C, Bik EM, DiGiulio DB, Relman DA, Brown PO. Development of the human infant intestinal microbiota. PLoS Biol 2007;5:e177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rumney CJ, Rowland IR. In vivo and in vitro models of the human colonic flora. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 1992;31:299–331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sekirov I, Russell SL, Antunes LC, Finlay BB. Gut microbiota in health and disease. Physiol Rev 2010;90:859–904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckburg PB, Bik EM, Bernstein CN, Purdom E, Dethlefsen L, Sargent M, et al. Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora. Science 2005;308:1635–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajilic-Stojanovic M, Smidt H, de Vos WM. Diversity of the human gastrointestinal tract microbiota revisited. Environ Microbiol 2007;9:2125–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KS, Caughey B. A simplified recipe for prions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104:9551–2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amann R, Fuchs BM. Single-cell identification in microbial communities by improved fluorescence in situ hybridization techniques. Nat Rev Microbiol 2008;6:339–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rinttila T, Kassinen A, Malinen E, Krogius L, Palva A. Development of an extensive set of 16S rDNA-targeted primers for quantification of pathogenic and indigenous bacteria in faecal samples by real-time PCR. J Appl Microbiol 2004;97:1166–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Amor K, Heilig H, Smidt H, Vaughan EE, Abee T, de Vos WM. Genetic diversity of viable, injured, and dead fecal bacteria assessed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting and 16S rRNA gene analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005;71:4679–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egert M, de Graaf AA, Maathuis A, de WP, Plugge CM, Smidt H, et al. Identification of glucose-fermenting bacteria present in an in vitro model of the human intestine by RNA-stable isotope probing. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2007;60:126–35.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van den Bogert B, de Vos WM, Zoetendal EG, Kleerebezem M. Microarray analysis and barcoded pyrosequencing provide consistent microbial profiles depending on the source of human intestinal samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011;77:2071–80.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zoetendal EG, Rajilic-Stojanovic M, De Vos WM. High-throughput diversity and functionality analysis of the gastrointestinal tract microbiota. Gut 2008;57:1605–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson KE, Weinstock GM, Highlander SK, Worley KC, Creasy HH, Wortman JR, et al. A catalog of reference genomes from the human microbiome. Science;2010;328:994–9.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson J, Garges S, Giovanni M, McInnes P, Wang L, Schloss JA, et al. The NIH Human Microbiome Project. Genome Res 2009;19:2317–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin J, Li R, Raes J, Arumugam M, Burgdorf KS, Manichanh C, et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 2010;464:59–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tap J, Mondot S, Levenez F, Pelletier E, Caron C, Furet JP, et al. Towards the human intestinal microbiota phylogenetic core. Environ Microbiol 2009;11:2574–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ley RE, Turnbaugh PJ, Klein S, Gordon JI. Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature 2006;444:1022–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mariat D, Firmesse O, Levenez F, Guimaraes V, Sokol H, Dore J, et al. The Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio of the human microbiota changes with age. BMC Microbiol 2009;9:123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Booijink CC, Zoetendal EG, Kleerebezem M, de Vos WM. Microbial communities in the human small intestine: coupling diversity to metagenomics. Future Microbiol 2007;2:285–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quigley EM. Microflora modulation of motility. J Neurogastroenterol Motil 2011;17:140–7.
   Google Scholar
• Guarner F, Malagelada JR. Gut flora in health and disease. Lancet 2003;361:512–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dethlefsen L, Huse S, Sogin ML, Relman DA. The pervasive effects of an antibiotic on the human gut microbiota, as revealed by deep 16S rRNA sequencing. PLoS Biol 2008;6:e280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arumugam M, Raes J, Pelletier E, Le PD, Yamada T, Mende DR, et al. Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. Nature 2011;473:174–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mans JJ, von LK, Dorsey C, Willis S, Wallet SM, Baker HV, et al. The degree of microbiome complexity influences the epithelial response to infection. BMC Genomics 2009;10:380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Begley M, Gahan CG, Hill C. The interaction between bacteria and bile. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2005;29:625–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridlon JM, Kang DJ, Hylemon PB. Bile salt biotransformations by human intestinal bacteria. J Lipid Res 2006;47:241–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefebvre P, Cariou B, Lien F, Kuipers F, Staels B. Role of bile acids and bile acid receptors in metabolic regulation. Physiol Rev 2009;89:147–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong JM, de SR, Kendall CW, Emam A, Jenkins DJ. Colonic health: fermentation and short chain fatty acids. J Clin Gastroenterol 2006;40:235–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hijova E, Chmelarova A. Short chain fatty acids and colonic health. Bratisl Lek Listy 2007;108:354–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen WJ, Anderson JW, Jennings D. Propionate may mediate the hypocholesterolemic effects of certain soluble plant fibers in cholesterol-fed rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1984;175:215–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machado MV, Cortez-Pinto H. Gut microbiota and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Ann Hepatol 2012;11:440–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilg H, Kaser A. Gut microbiome, obesity, and metabolic dysfunction. J Clin Invest 2011;121:2126–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manco M, Putignani L, Bottazzo GF. Gut microbiota, lipopolysaccharides, and innate immunity in the pathogenesis of obesity and cardiovascular risk. Endocr Rev 2010;31:817–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serino M, Luche E, Gres S, Baylac A, Berge M, Cenac C, et al. Metabolic adaptation to a high-fat diet is associated with a change in the gut microbiota. Gut 2012;61:543–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prakash S, Rodes L, Coussa-Charley M, Tomaro-Duchesneau C. Gut microbiota: next frontier in understanding human health and development of biotherapeutics. Biologics 2011;5:71–86.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hapfelmeier S, Lawson MA, Slack E, Kirundi JK, Stoel M, Heikenwalder M, et al. Reversible microbial colonization of germ-free mice reveals the dynamics of IgA immune responses. Science 2010;328:1705–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atarashi K, Tanoue T, Shima T, Imaoka A, Kuwahara T, Momose Y, et al. Induction of colonic regulatory T cells by indigenous clostridium species. Science 2011;331:337–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivanov II, Atarashi K, Manel N, Brodie EL, Shima T, Karaoz U, et al. Induction of intestinal Th17 cells by segmented filamentous bacteria. Cell 2009;139:485–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luhrs H, Gerke T, Muller JG, Melcher R, Schauber J, Boxberge F, et al. Butyrate inhibits NF-kappaB activation in lamina propria macrophages of patients with ulcerative colitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 2002;37:458–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maslowski KM, Vieira AT, Ng A, Kranich J, Sierro F, Yu D, et al. Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiota and chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature 2009;461:1282–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleessen B, Blaut M. Modulation of gut mucosal biofilms. Br J Nutr 2005;93:S35–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamer HM, Jonkers D, Venema K, Vanhoutvin S, Troost FJ, Brummer RJ. Review article: the role of butyrate on colonic function. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008;27:104–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drossman DA. Presidential address: Gastrointestinal illness and the biopsychosocial model. Psychosom Med 1998;60:258–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsythe P, Kunze WA. Voices from within: gut microbes and the CNS. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013;70:55–69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhee SH, Pothoulakis C, Mayer EA. Principles and clinical implications of the brain-gut-enteric microbiota axis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;6:306–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cryan JF, O'Mahony SM. The microbiome-gut-brain axis: from bowel to behavior. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2011;23:187–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sudo N, Chida Y, Aiba Y, Sonoda J, Oyama N, Yu XN, et al. Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system for stress response in mice. J Physiol 2004;558:263–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neufeld KM, Kang N, Bienenstock J, Foster JA. Reduced anxiety-like behavior and central neurochemical change in germ-free mice. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2011;23:255–64, e119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diaz HR, Wang S, Anuar F, Qian Y, Bjorkholm B, Samuelsson A, et al. Normal gut microbiota modulates brain development and behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011;108:3047–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gareau MG, Wine E, Rodrigues DM, Cho JH, Whary MT, Philpott DJ, et al. Bacterial infection causes stress-induced memory dysfunction in mice. Gut 2011;60:307–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bercik P, Park AJ, Sinclair D, Khoshdel A, Lu J, Huang X, et al. The anxiolytic effect of Bifidobacterium longum NCC3001 involves vagal pathways for gut-brain communication. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2011;23:1132–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bercik P, Verdu EF, Foster JA, Macri J, Potter M, Huang X, et al. Chronic gastrointestinal inflammation induces anxiety-like behavior and alters central nervous system biochemistry in mice. Gastroenterology 2010;139:2102–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bravo JA, Forsythe P, Chew MV, Escaravage E, Savignac HM, Dinan TG, et al. Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011;108:16050–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dinan TG, Quigley EM, Ahmed SM, Scully P, O'Brien S, O'Mahony L, et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary-gut axis dysregulation in irritable bowel syndrome: plasma cytokines as a potential biomarker? Gastroenterology 2006;130:304–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsythe P, Kunze WA, Bienenstock J. On communication between gut microbes and the brain. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2012;28:557–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goehler LE, Gaykema RP, Opitz N, Reddaway R, Badr N, Lyte M. Activation in vagal afferents and central autonomic pathways: early responses to intestinal infection with Campylobacter jejuni. Brain Behav Immun 2005;19:334–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longstreth GF, Thompson WG, Chey WD, Houghton LA, Mearin F, Spiller RC. Functional bowel disorders. Gastroenterology 2006;130:1480–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drossman DA, Camilleri M, Mayer EA, Whitehead WE. AGA technical review on irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 2002;123:2108–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simren M, Castedal M, Svedlund J, Abrahamsson H, Bjornsson E. Abnormal propagation pattern of duodenal pressure waves in the irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) [correction of (IBD)]. Dig Dis Sci 2000;45:2151–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar D, Wingate DL. The irritable bowel syndrome: a paroxysmal motor disorder. Lancet 1985;2:973–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt T, Hackelsberger N, Widmer R, Meisel C, Pfeiffer A, Kaess H. Ambulatory 24-hour jejunal motility in diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Scand J Gastroenterol 1996;31:581–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitehead WE, Holtkotter B, Enck P, Hoelzl R, Holmes KD, Anthony J, et al. Tolerance for rectosigmoid distention in irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 1990;98:1187–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouin M, Plourde V, Boivin M, Riberdy M, Lupien F, Laganiere M, et al. Rectal distention testing in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of pain sensory thresholds. Gastroenterology 2002;122:1771–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuo XL, Li YQ, Shi L, Lv GP, Kuang RG, Lu XF, et al. Visceral hypersensitivity following cold water intake in subjects with irritable bowel syndrome. J Gastroenterol 2006;41:311–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nozu T, Kudaira M, Kitamori S, Uehara A. Repetitive rectal painful distention induces rectal hypersensitivity in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. J Gastroenterol 2006;41:217–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadwick VS, Chen W, Shu D, Paulus B, Bethwaite P, Tie A, et al. Activation of the mucosal immune system in irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 2002;122:1778–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liebregts T, Adam B, Bredack C, Roth A, Heinzel S, Lester S, et al. Immune activation in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 2007;132:913–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halvorson HA, Schlett CD, Riddle MS. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome–a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:1894–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thabane M, Kottachchi DT, Marshall JK. Systematic review and meta-analysis: The incidence and prognosis of post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007;26:535–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saito YA, Petersen GM, Locke GR 3rd, Talley NJ. The genetics of irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;3:1057–65.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang L. The role of stress on physiologic responses and clinical symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 2011;140:761–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aerssens J, Camilleri M, Talloen W, Thielemans L, Gohlmann HW, Van DW, et al. Alterations in mucosal immunity identified in the colon of patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;6:194–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matto J, Maunuksela L, Kajander K, Palva A, Korpela R, Kassinen A, et al. Composition and temporal stability of gastrointestinal microbiota in irritable bowel syndrome–a longitudinal study in IBS and control subjects. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2005;43:213–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maukonen J, Satokari R, Matto J, Soderlund H, Mattila-Sandholm T, Saarela M. Prevalence and temporal stability of selected clostridial groups in irritable bowel syndrome in relation to predominant faecal bacteria. J Med Microbiol 2006;55:625–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Codling C, O'Mahony L, Shanahan F, Quigley EM, Marchesi JR. A molecular analysis of fecal and mucosal bacterial communities in irritable bowel syndrome. Dig Dis Sci 2010;55:392–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malinen E, Rinttila T, Kajander K, Matto J, Kassinen A, Krogius L, et al. Analysis of the fecal microbiota of irritable bowel syndrome patients and healthy controls with real-time PCR. Am J Gastroenterol 2005;100:373–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyra A, Rinttila T, Nikkila J, Krogius-Kurikka L, Kajander K, Malinen E, et al. Diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome distinguishable by 16S rRNA gene phylotype quantification. World J Gastroenterol 2009;15:5936–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tana C, Umesaki Y, Imaoka A, Handa T, Kanazawa M, Fukudo S. Altered profiles of intestinal microbiota and organic acids may be the origin of symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2010;22:512–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponnusamy K, Choi JN, Kim J, Lee SY, Lee CH. Microbial community and metabolomic comparison of irritable bowel syndrome faeces. J Med Microbiol 2011;60:817–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King TS, Elia M, Hunter JO. Abnormal colonic fermentation in irritable bowel syndrome. Lancet 1998;352:1187–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassinen A, Krogius-Kurikka L, Makivuokko H, Rinttila T, Paulin L, Corander J, et al. The fecal microbiota of irritable bowel syndrome patients differs significantly from that of healthy subjects. Gastroenterology 2007;133:24–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krogius-Kurikka L, Lyra A, Malinen E, Aarnikunnas J, Tuimala J, Paulin L, et al. Microbial community analysis reveals high level phylogenetic alterations in the overall gastrointestinal microbiota of diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome sufferers. BMC Gastroenterol 2009;9:95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michl T, Jocic M, Heinemann A, Schuligoi R, Holzer P. Vagal afferent signaling of a gastric mucosal acid insult to medullary, pontine, thalamic, hypothalamic and limbic, but not cortical, nuclei of the rat brain. Pain 2001;92:19–27.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Swidsinski A, Weber J, Loening-Baucke V, Hale LP, Lochs H. Spatial organization and composition of the mucosal flora in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43:3380–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll IM, Chang YH, Park J, Sartor RB, Ringel Y. Luminal and mucosal-associated intestinal microbiota in patients with diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Gut Pathogens 2010;2:19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerckhoffs AP, Samsom M, van der Rest ME, de VJ, Knol J, Ben-Amor K, et al. Lower Bifidobacteria counts in both duodenal mucosa-associated and fecal microbiota in irritable bowel syndrome patients. World J Gastroenterol 2009;15:2887–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiller R, Lam C. An Update on post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome: role of genetics, immune activation, serotonin and altered microbiome. J Neurogastroenterol Motil 2012;18:258–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoepfer AM, Schaffer T, Seibold-Schmid B, Muller S, Seibold F. Antibodies to flagellin indicate reactivity to bacterial antigens in IBS patients. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2008;20:1110–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salonen A, de Vos WM, Palva A. Gastrointestinal microbiota in irritable bowel syndrome: present state and perspectives. Microbiology 2010;156:3205–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAO/WHO. Health and nutritional properties of probiotics in food including powder milk with live lactic acid bacteria. Basel, Switzerland: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Evaluation of Health and Nutritional Properties of Probiotics in Food Including Powder Milk with Live Lactic Acid Bacteria; 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Quigley EM. Probiotics in irritable bowel syndrome: an immunomodulatory strategy? J Am Coll Nutr 2007;26:684S–90S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preidis GA, Versalovic J. Targeting the human microbiome with antibiotics, probiotics, and prebiotics: gastroenterology enters the metagenomics era. Gastroenterology 2009;136:2015–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quigley EM, Flourie B. Probiotics and irritable bowel syndrome: a rationale for their use and an assessment of the evidence to date. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2007;19:166–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas CM, Versalovic J. Probiotics-host communication: Modulation of signaling pathways in the intestine. Gut Microbes 2010;1:148–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Sullivan MA, O'Morain CA. Bacterial supplementation in the irritable bowel syndrome. A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study. Dig Liver Dis 2000;32:294–301.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nobaek S, Johansson ML, Molin G, Ahrne S, Jeppsson B. Alteration of intestinal microflora is associated with reduction in abdominal bloating and pain in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:1231–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whorwell PJ, Altringer L, Morel J, Bond Y, Charbonneau D, O'Mahony L, et al. Efficacy of an encapsulated probiotic Bifidobacterium infantis 35624 in women with irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:1581–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenner DM, Moeller MJ, Chey WD, Schoenfeld PS. The utility of probiotics in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review. Am J Gastroenterol 2009;104:1033–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Mahony L, McCarthy J, Kelly P, Hurley G, Luo F, Chen K, et al. Lactobacillus and bifidobacterium in irritable bowel syndrome: symptom responses and relationship to cytokine profiles. Gastroenterology 2005;128:541–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levri KM, Ketvertis K, Deramo M, Merenstein JH, D'Amico F. Do probiotics reduce adult lactose intolerance? A systematic review. J Fam Pract 2005;54:613–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moayyedi P, Ford AC, Talley NJ, Cremonini F, Foxx-Orenstein AE, Brandt LJ, et al. The efficacy of probiotics in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review. Gut 2010;59:325–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camilleri M. Probiotics and irritable bowel syndrome: rationale, mechanisms, and efficacy. J Clin Gastroenterol 2008;42:S123–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV, Dublin S. Meta-analysis of probiotics for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:2650–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ringel Y, Carroll IM. Alterations in the intestinal microbiota and functional bowel symptoms. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 2009;19:141–50, vii.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saggioro A. Probiotics in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. J Clin Gastroenterol 2004;38:S104–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim HJ, Camilleri M, McKinzie S, Lempke MB, Burton DD, Thomforde GM, et al. A randomized controlled trial of a probiotic, VSL#3, on gut transit and symptoms in diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2003;17:895–904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drouault-Holowacz S, Bieuvelet S, Burckel A, Cazaubiel M, Dray X, Marteau P. A double blind randomized controlled trial of a probiotic combination in 100 patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 2008;32:147–52.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Guglielmetti S, Mora D, Gschwender M, Popp K. Randomised clinical trial: Bifidobacterium bifidum MIMBb75 significantly alleviates irritable bowel syndrome and improves quality of life–a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011;33:1123–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuomo R, Savarese MF, Gargano R. Almost all irritable bowel syndromes are post-infectious and respond to probiotics: consensus issues. Dig Dis 2007;25:241–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gibson GR. Prebiotics as gut microflora management tools. J Clin Gastroenterol 2008;42:S75–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cani PD, Lecourt E, Dewulf EM, Sohet FM, Pachikian BD, Naslain D, et al. Gut microbiota fermentation of prebiotics increases satietogenic and incretin gut peptide production with consequences for appetite sensation and glucose response after a meal. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;90:1236–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberfroid M. Prebiotics: the concept revisited. J Nutr 2007;137:830S–7S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macfarlane S, Macfarlane GT, Cummings JH. Review article: prebiotics in the gastrointestinal tract. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2006;24:701–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olesen M, Gudmand-Hoyer E. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of fructooligosaccharides in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:1570–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter JO, Tuffnell Q, Lee AJ. Controlled trial of oligofructose in the management of irritable bowel syndrome. J Nutr 1999;129:1451S–3S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silk DB, Davis A, Vulevic J, Tzortzis G, Gibson GR. Clinical trial: the effects of a trans-galactooligosaccharide prebiotic on faecal microbiota and symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009;29:508–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andriulli A, Neri M, Loguercio C, Terreni N, Merla A, Cardarella MP, et al. Clinical trial on the efficacy of a new symbiotic formulation, Flortec, in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: a multicenter, randomized study. J Clin Gastroenterol 2008;42:S218–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nayak AK, Karnad DR, Abraham P, Mistry FP. Metronidazole relieves symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome: the confusion with so-called 'chronic amebiasis'. Indian J Gastroenterol 1997;16:137–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sharara AI, Aoun E, Abdul-Baki H, Mounzer R, Sidani S, Elhajj I. A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of rifaximin in patients with abdominal bloating and flatulence. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:326–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pimentel M, Chow EJ, Lin HC. Normalization of lactulose breath testing correlates with symptom improvement in irritable bowel syndrome. a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Gastroenterol 2003;98:412–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pimentel M, Park S, Mirocha J, Kane SV, Kong Y. The effect of a nonabsorbed oral antibiotic (rifaximin) on the symptoms of the irritable bowel syndrome: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2006;145:557–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pimentel M, Lembo A, Chey WD, Zakko S, Ringel Y, Yu J, et al. Rifaximin therapy for patients with irritable bowel syndrome without constipation. N Engl J Med 2011;364:22–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pimentel M, Chow EJ, Lin HC. Eradication of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth reduces symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:3503–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bratten JR, Spanier J, Jones MP. Lactulose breath testing does not discriminate patients with irritable bowel syndrome from healthy controls. Am J Gastroenterol 2008;103:958–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Portincasa P, Moschetta A, Baldassarre G, Altomare DF, Palasciano G. Pan-enteric dysmotility, impaired quality of life and alexithymia in a large group of patients meeting the Rome II criteria for irritable bowel. World J Gastroenterol 2003;9:2293–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tack J. Antibiotic therapy for the irritable bowel syndrome. N Engl J Med 2011;364:81–2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eiseman B, Silen W, Bascom GS, Kauvar AJ. Fecal enema as an adjunct in the treatment of pseudomembranous enterocolitis. Surgery 1958;44:854–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gough E, Shaikh H, Manges AR. Systematic review of intestinal microbiota transplantation (fecal bacteriotherapy) for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53:994–1002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borody TJ, Khoruts A. Fecal microbiota transplantation and emerging applications. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012;9:88–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aroniadis OC, Brandt LJ. Fecal microbiota transplantation: past, present and future. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2013;29:79–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borody TJ, George L, Andrews P, Brandl S, Noonan S, Cole P, et al. Bowel-flora alteration: a potential cure for inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome? Med J Aust 1989;150:604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borody TJ, Warren EF, Leis SM, Surace R, Ashman O, Siarakas S. Bacteriotherapy using fecal flora: toying with human motions. J Clin Gastroenterol 2004;38:475–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedzielin K, Kordecki H, Birkenfeld B. A controlled, double-blind, randomized study on the efficacy of Lactobacillus plantarum 299V in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2001;13:1143–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sen S, Mullan MM, Parker TJ, Woolner JT, Tarry SA, Hunter JO. Effect of Lactobacillus plantarum 299v on colonic fermentation and symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. Dig Dis Sci 2002;47:2615–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar