88
Views
47
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Article

The Pathophysiology of Gastro-oesophageal Reflux Disease: An Overview

&
Pages 7-18 | Published online: 08 Jul 2009

References

  • Heading R C. Epidemiology of oesophageal reflux disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 1989; 24(Suppl 168)33–7
  • Holloway R H, Dent J. Pathophysiology of gastroesophageal reflux. Lower esophageal sphincter dysfunction in gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterol Clin N Am 1990; 19: 517–5
  • Altorki N K, Skinner D B. Pathophysiology of gastrooesophageal reflux. Am J Med 1989; 86: 685–9
  • Timmer R, Breumelhof R, Nadorp J HSM, Smout A JPM. Recent advances in the pathophysiology of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1993; 5: 485–91
  • Jamieson J R, Stein H J, DeMeester T R, Bonavina M, Schwizer W, Hinder R A, et al. Ambulatory 24-h esophageal pH monitoring: normal values, optimal thresholds, specificity, sensitivity, and reproducibility. Am J Gastroenterol 1992; 87: 1102–10
  • Cohen S, Harris L D. Does hiatus hernia affect competence of the gastroesophageal sphincter?. N Engl J Med 1971; 284: 1053–6
  • Dent J, Dodds W J, Friedman R H, et al. Mechanism of gastroesophageal reflux in recumbent asymptomatic human subjects. J Clin Invest 1980; 65: 256–67
  • Dent J, Dodds W J, Sekiguchi T. Interdigestive phasic contractions of the human lower esophageal sphincter. Gastroenterology 1983; 84: 453–60
  • Dent J, Holloway R H, Toouli J, Dodds W J. Mechanisms of lower oesophageal sphincter incompetence in patients with symptomatic gastrooesophageal reflux. Gut 1988; 29: 1020–8
  • Dodds W J, Dent J, Hogan W J. Mechanism of gastroesophageal reflux in patients with reflux esophagitis. N Engl J Med 1982; 307: 1547–52
  • Freidin N, Fisher M J, Taylor W, Boyd D, Surratt P, McCallum R W, et al. Sleep and nocturnal acid reflux in normal subjects and patients with reflux oesophagitis. Gut 1991; 32: 1275–9
  • Holloway R H, Hongo M, Berger K, McCallum R W. Gastric distension: a mechanism for post-prandial gastroesophageal reflux. Gastroenterology 1985; 89: 779–84
  • Holloway R H, Kocyan P, Dent J. Provocation of transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxations by meals in patients with symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux. Dig Dis Sci 1991; 8: 1034–9
  • Mittal R K, McCallum R W. Characteristics and frequency of transient relaxations of the lower esophageal sphincter in patients with reffux-esophagitis. Gastroenterology 1988; 95: 593–9
  • Franzi S J, Martin C J, Cox M R, Dent J. Response of canine lower esophageal sphincter to gastric distension. Am J Physiol 1990; 259: G380–5
  • Mittal R K, Rochester D F, McCallum R W. Electrical and mechanical activity in the human lower esophageal sphincter during diaphragmatic contraction. J Clin Invest 1988; 81: 1182
  • Kaye M D, Rein R, Johnson W P, Showalter J P. Responses of the competent and incompetent lower oesophageal sphincter to pentagastrin and abdominal compression. Gut 1976; 17: 933–9
  • Chakraborty T K, Ogilvie A L, Heading R C, Ewing D J. Abnormal cardiovascular reflexes in patients with gastrooesophageal reflux. Gut 1989; 30: 46–9
  • Cunningham K M, Horowitz M, Riddell P S, Maddern G J, Myers J C, Holloway R H, et al. Relations among autonomic nerve dysfunction, oesophageal motility, and gastric emptying in gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Gut 1991; 32: 1436–40
  • Tottrup A. The role of nitric oxide in oesophageal motor function. Dis Esophagus 1993; 6: 2–10
  • Biancani P, Billett G, Hillemeier C, Nissensohn M, Rhim B Y, Szewczak S, et al. Acute experimental esophagitis impairs signal transduction in cat lower esophageal sphincter circular muscle. Gastroenterology 1992; 103: 1199–206
  • Eastwood G L, Castell D O, Higgs R H. Experimental esophagitis in cats impairs lower esophageal sphincter pressure. Gastroenterology 1975; 69: 146–53
  • Singh P, Adamopoulos A, Taylor R H, Colin-Jones D G. Oesophageal motor function before and after healing of oesophagitis. Gut 1992; 33: 1590–6
  • Van Deventer G, Kamemoto E, Kuznicki J T, Heckert D C, Schulte M C. Lower esophageal sphincter pressure, acid secretion, and blood gastrin after coffee consumption. Dig Dis Sci 1992; 37: 558–69
  • Kahrilas P J. Cigarette smoking and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Dig Dis 1992; 10: 61–71
  • Everson G T. Gastrointestinal motility in pregnancy. Gastroenterol Clin N Am 1992; 21: 751–76
  • Galmiche J P, Denis P. Reflux gastro-oesophagien et grossesse: une énigme physiopathologique non résolue. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1982; 6: 421–3
  • Mittal R K, Bulent S, Schirmer B D, Heine K J. Effect of crural myotomy on the incidence and mechanism of gastroesophageal reflux in cats. Gastroenterology 1993; 105: 740–7
  • Mittal R K, Fisher M J. Electrical and mechanical inhibition of the crural diaphragm during transient relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter. Gastroenterology 1990; 99: 1265–8
  • Heine K J, Dent J, Mittal R K. Anatomical relationship between crural diaphragm and lower oesophageal sphincter: an electrophysiological study. J Gastrointest Mot 1993; 5: 89–95
  • Klein W A, Parkman H P, Dempsey D T, Fisher R S. Sphincter-like thoracoabdominal high pressure zone after esophagogastrectomy. Gastroenterology 1993; 105: 1362–9
  • Barish C F, Wu W C, Castell D O. Respiratory complications of gastroesophageal reflux. Arch Intern Med 1985; 45: 1882–8
  • Dent J. Recent views on the pathogenesis of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Bailliere's Clin Gastroenterol 1987; 1: 727–45
  • Sloan S, Rademaker A W, Kahrilas P J. Determinants of gastroesophageal junction incompetence: hiatal hernia, lower esophageal sphincter, or both?. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 977–82
  • Scarpignato C. Gastric emptying in functional oesophageal disorders. Functional evaluation in esophageal disease, C Scarpignato, J P Galmiche, Front Gastrointest Res 1994, 22, 223–59
  • Hartley M N, Walker S J, Mackie C R. Abnormal adaptative relaxation in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux. Gut 1990; 31: 500–3
  • Wattchow D A, Jamieson G G, Maddern G J, Furness J B, Costa M. Distribution of peptide-containing nerve fibers in the gastric musculature of patients undergoing surgery for gastroesophageal reflux. Ann Surg 1992; 216: 153–60
  • Scarpignato C, Franze A. Esophageal exposure to acid in GERD patients with and without delayed gastric emptying. Effect of cisapride. Hepato-Gastroenterol 1992; 39: 91–2
  • Bruley des Varannes S, Touchais O, Weber J, Desechalliers J P, Sauger F, Denis P, et al. Oesophagite de reflux: rôles respectifs des facteurs pathogéniques oesophagiens et gastriques. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1986; 10: 662–6
  • Zaninotto G, Di Mario F, Costantini M, Baffa R, Germana B, Dalsanto P L, et al. Oesophagitis and pH of refluxate: an experimental and clinical study. Br J Surg 1992; 79: 161–4
  • Zijlstra F G, Hynna-Liepert T T, Dinda P K, Beck I T, Paterson W G. Microvascular permeability increases early in the course of acid-induced esophageal injury. Gastroenterology 1991; 101: 295–302
  • Tobey N A, Orlando R C. Mechanisms of acid injury to rabbit esophageal epithelium. Gastroenterology 1991; 101: 1220–8
  • Evander A, Little A G, Riddell R H, Walther B, Skinner D B. Composition of the refluxed material determines the degree of reflux esophagitis in the dog. Gastroenterology 1987; 93: 280–6
  • Stein H J, Barlow A P, DeMeester T R, Hinder R A. Complications of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Ann Surg 1992; 216: 35–43
  • Bruley des Varannes S, Ravenbakht-Charifi M, Cloarec D, Pujol P, Simon J, Galmiche J P. Endobrachy oesophage et reflux gastro-cesophagien acide: Enregistrements pH-metriques etages et dtude manome'trique. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1992; 16: 406–12
  • Scarpignato C. Advances in drug therapy of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Front Gastrointest Res Karger 1992
  • Fiorucci S, Santucci L, Chiucchiu S, Morelli A. Gastric acidity and gastroesophageal reflux patterns in patients with esophagitis. Gastroenterology 1992; 103: 855–61
  • Pellegrini C A, De Meester T R, Wernly J A. Alkaline gastroesophageal reflux. Am J Surg 1978; 135: 177–83
  • Stoker S L, Williams J G. Alkaline reflux oesophagitis. Gut 1991; 32: 1090–2
  • Mittal R K, Reuben A, Whitney J O, McCallum R W. Do bile acids reflux into the esophagus? A study in normal subjects and patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology 1987; 92: 371–5
  • Gotley D C, Morgan A P, Ball D, Owen R W, Cooper M J. Composition of gastro-oesophageal refluxate. Gut 1991; 32: 1093–9
  • Pera M, Trastek V F, Carpenter H A, Fernandez P L, Cardesa A, Mohr U, et al. Influence of pancreatic and biliary reflux on the development of esophageal carcinoma. Ann Thorac Surg 1993; 55: 1386–93
  • Hirschowitz B I. A critical analysis with appropriate controls of gastric acid and pepsin secretion in clinical esophagitis. Gastroenterology 1991; 101: 1149–58
  • Zhu H, Pace F, Sangaletti O, Porro Bianchi G. Gastric acid secretion and pattern of gastroesophageal reflux in patients with esophagitis and concomitant duodenal ulcer. Scand J Gastroenterol 1993; 28: 387–92
  • De Caestecker J S, Blackwell J N, Pryde A, Heading R C. Daytime gastrooesophageal reflux is important in oesophagitis. Gut 1987; 28: 519–26
  • Freidin N, Mittal R K, McCallum R W. Does body posture affect the incidence and mechanism of gastroesophageal reflux?. Gut 1991; 32: 133–6
  • Orr W C, Johnson L F, Robinson M G. Effect of sleep on swallowing, esophageal peristalsis and acid clearance. Gastroenterology 1984; 86: 814–9
  • De Meester T R, Johnson L F, Joseph G J. Patterns of gastroesophageal reflux in health and disease. Ann Surg 1976; 184: 459–70
  • Schindlbeck N E, Klauser A G, Berghammer G, Londong W, Muller-Lissner S A. Three-year follow-up of patients with gastrooesophageal reflux disease. Gut 1992; 33: 1016–9
  • Miller L S, Vinayek R, Frucht H, Gardner J D, Jensen R T, Maton P N. Reflux esophagitis in patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Gastroenterology 1990; 98: 341–6
  • Collen M J, Lewis J H, Benjamin S B. Gastric acid hypersecretion in refractory gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology 1990; 98: 654–61
  • Hirschowitz B I. Acid and pepsin secretion in patients with esophagitis refractory to treatment with H2 antagonists. Scand J Gastroenterol 1992; 27: 449–52
  • Smith J L, Opekum A R, Larkai R, Graham D Y. Sensitivity of the esophageal mucosa to pH in gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology 1989; 96: 683–9
  • Johansson K E, Tibbling L. Gastric secretion and reflux pattern in reflux esophagitis before and during ranitidine treatment. Scand J Gastroenterol 1986; 21: 487–92
  • Helm J F, Dodds W J, Hogan W J, Soergel K H, Egide M S, Wood C M. Acid neutralizing capacity of human saliva. Gastroenterology 1982; 83: 69–74
  • Helm J F, Dodds W J, Pele L R, et al. Effect of esophageal emptying and saliva on clearance of acid from the esophagus. N Engl J Med 1984; 310: 284–8
  • Bremner R M, Hoeft S F, Costantini M, Crookes P F, Bremner C G, DeMeester T. Pharyngeal swallowing. The major factor in clearance of esophageal reflux episodes. Ann Surg 1993; 218: 364–9
  • Kahrilas P J, Doods W J, Hogan W J, Kern M, Arndorfer R C, Reece A. Esophageal peristaltic dysfunction in peptic esophagitis. Gastroenterology 1986; 91: 897–904
  • Iftikhar S Y, Hardy J G, Evans D F, Ledingham S, Atkinson M. Dysphagia and dysmotility in Barrett's oesophagus. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1992; 4: 111–4
  • Bruley des Varannes S, Le Rhun M, Simon J, Galmiche J P. The acid hypersensitive esophagus: a frequent cause of symptoms in patients with normal esophageal acid exposure. Gastroenterology 1992; 102: A45, (abstract)
  • Timmer R, Breumelhof R, Nadorp J HSM, Smout A JPM. Esophageal motility in low-grade esophagitis, evaluated by stationary and 24-hour ambulatory manometry. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 837–41
  • Kahrilas P J, Dodds W J, Hogan W J. Effect of peristaltic dysfunction on esophageal volume clearance. Gastroenterology 1988; 94: 73–80
  • Williams D, Thompson D G, Marples M, Heggie L, O'Hanrahan T, Mani V, et al. Identification of an abnormal esophageal clearance response to intraluminal distention in patients with esophagitis. Gastroenterology 1992; 103: 943–53
  • Eckardt V F. Does healing of esophagitis improve esophageal motor function?. Dig Dis Sci 1988; 33: 161–5
  • Shaker R, Kahrilas P J, Dodds W J, Hogan W J. Oesophageal clearance of small amounts of equal or less than one mililitre of acid. Gut 1992; 33: 7–10
  • Dutta S K, Matossian H B, Meirowitz R F, Vaeth J. Modulation of salivary secretion by acid infusion in Humans. Gastroenterology 1992; 103: 1823–41
  • Sloan S, Kahrilas P J. Impairment of esophageal emptying with hiatal hernia. Gastroenterology 1991; 100: 596–605
  • Mittal R K, Lange R C, McCallum R W. Identification and mechanism of delayed esophageal acid clearance in subjects with hiatus hernia. Gastroenterology 1987; 92: 130–5
  • Orlando R C, Powell D W, Carney C N. Pathophysiology of acute acid injury in rabbit esophageal epithelium. J Clin Invest 1981; 68: 286–93
  • Meyers R L, Orlando R. In vivo bicarbonate secretion by human esophagus. Gastroenterology 1992; 103: 1174–8
  • Quigley E MM, Turnberg A L. Studies of luminal and mucosal pH in reflux esophagitis and antral gastritis. Dig Dis Sci 1992; 10: 134–43
  • Orlando R C, Lacy E R, Tobey N A, Cowart K. Barriers to paracellular permeability in rabbit esophageal epithelium. Gastroenterology 1992; 102: 910–23
  • Tobey N A, Reddy S P, Khalbuss W E, Silvers S M, Gragoe E D, Orlando R C. Na+ dependent and independent CI/HCO3—exchangers in cultured rabbit esophageal epithelial cells. Gastroenterology 1993; 104: 185–95
  • Geboes K, Desmet V, Vantrappen G, Mebis J. Vascular changes in the esophageal mucosa: an early sign of esophagitis. Gastrointest Endosc 1980; 26: 29–32
  • Li L, Yu Z, Piascik R, Hetzel D P, Rourk R M, Namiot Z, et al. Effect of esophageal mechanical and chemical stressors on salivary epidermal growth factor in humans. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 1749–55
  • Christensen J. Origin and sensation in the esophagus. Am J Physiol 1984; 246: G221–5
  • Bruley des Varannes S, Galmiche J P. Evaluation of esophageal sensitivity. Functional evaluation in esophageal disease, C Scarpignato, J P Galmiche, Front Gastrointest Res 1994, 22, 342–63
  • Joelsson B, Johnsson F. Heartburn—the acid test. Gut 1989; 30: 1523–5
  • Baldi F, Ferrarini F, Longanesi A, Ragazzini M, Barbara L. Acid gastroesophageal reflux and symptoms occurrence. Analysis of some factors influencing their association. Dig Dis Sci 1989; 34: 1890–3
  • Basilisco G, Barbera R, Molgora M, Vanoli M, Bianchi P. Acid clearance and oesophageal sensitivity in patients with progressive systemic sclerosis. Gut 1993; 34: 1487–91
  • Shaker R, Dodds W J, Helm J F, Kern M K, Hogan W J. Regional esophageal distribution and clearance of refluxed gastric acid. Gastroenterology 1991; 101: 355–9
  • Jacob P, Kahrilas P J, Herzon G. Proximal esophageal pH-metry in patients with ‘reflux laryngitis’. Gastroenterology 1991; 100: 305–J0
  • Barré P, Bruley des Varannes S, Masliah C, Cloarec D, Le Bodic L, Galmiche J P. Le marqueur d'événements: un progrès dans 1′interprétation de la pH-métrie œsophagienne. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1989; 13: 32–7
  • Janssens J, Vantrappen G, Vos R, Ghillbert G. The acid burden over an extended period preceding a reflux episode is a major determinant in the development of heartburn. Gastroenterology 1992; 102: A90
  • Winwood P J, Mavrogiannis C C, Smith C L. Reduced sensitivity to intra-oesophageal acid in patients with reflux induced strictures. Scand J Gastroenterol 1993; 28: 109–12
  • Cameron A J, Zinsmeister A R, Ballard D J, Carney J A. Prevalence of columnar-lined (Barrett's) oesophagus. Comparison of population-based clinical and autopsy findings. Gastroenterology 1990; 99: 918–22
  • Cohen S. The pathogenesis of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a challenge in clinical physiology. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 1051–2

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.