664
Views
22
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Infection and antibiotics in the aetiology, prediction and prevention of preterm birth

&
Pages 768-775 | Published online: 12 Nov 2013

References

  • Abele-Horn M, Scholz M, Wolff C, Kolben M. 2000. High density vaginal Ureaplasma Urealyticum colonization as a risk factor for chorioamnionitis and preterm delivery. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 79:973–978.
  • Abrahams VM, Aldo PB, Murphy SP, Visintin I, Koga K, Wilson G et al. 2008. TLR6 modulates first trimester trophoblast responses to peptidoglycan. Journal of Immunology 180:6035–6043.
  • Agrawal V, Hirsch E. 2011. Intrauterine infection and preterm labor. Seminars in Fetal and Neonatal Medicine 17:12–19.
  • Akira S, Takeda K, Kaisho T. 2001. Toll-like receptors: critical proteins linking innate and acquired immunity. Nature Immunology 2:675–680.
  • Alanen A. 1998. Polymerase chain reaction in the detection of microbes in amniotic fluid. Annals of Medicine 30:288–295.
  • Andrews WW, Goldenberg RL, Mercer B, Iams J, Meis P, Moawad A et al. 2000. The Preterm Prediction Study: association of second-trimester genitourinary chlamydia infection with subsequent spontaneous preterm birth. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 183:662–668.
  • Arias F, Tomich P. 1982. Etiology and outcome of low birth weight and preterm infants. Obstetrics and Gynecology 60:277–281.
  • Benedetti TJ, Valle R, Ledger WJ. 1982. Antepartum pneumonia in pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 144:413–417.
  • Bennett WA, Terrone DA, Rinehart BK, Kassab S, Martin JN Jr, Granger JP. 2000. Intrauterine endotoxin infusion in rat pregnancy induces preterm delivery and increases placental prostaglandin F2alpha metabolite levels. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 182:1496–1501.
  • Blanco-Quiros A, Arranz E, Solis G, Villar A, Ramos A, Coto D. 2000. Cord blood interleukin-10 levels are increased in preterm newborns. European Journal of Pediatrics 159:420–423.
  • Borin MT, Powley GW, Tackwell KR, Batts DH. 1995. Absorption of clindamycin after intravaginal application of clindamycin phosphate 2% cream. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 35:833–841.
  • Carey JC, Klebanoff MA, Hauth JC, Hillier SL, Thom EA, Ernest JM. 2000. Metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery in pregnant women with asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. New England Journal of Medicine 342:534–540.
  • Casey ML, Cox SM, Beutler B, Milewich L, MacDonald PC. 1989. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor-alpha formation in human deciduas. Potential role of cytokines in infection-induced preterm labor. Journal of Clinical Investigation 83:430–436.
  • Challis JR. G. 2000. Mechanism of parturition and preterm labor. Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey 55:650–660.
  • Costeloe K, Hennessy E, Gibson AT, Marlow N, Wilkinson AR. 2000. The EPICure study: outcomes to discharge from hospital for infants born at the threshold of viability. Pediatrics 106:659–671.
  • Davidoff MJ, Dias T, Damus K, Russell R, Bettegowda VR, Dolan S et al. 2006. Changes in the gestational age distribution among U.S. singleton births: impact on rates of late preterm birth, 1992 to 2002. Seminars in Perinatology 30:8–15. [Erratum 30:313].
  • Eschenbach DA, Gravett MG, Chen KC, Hoyme UB, Holmes KK. 1984. Bacterial vaginosis during pregnancy. An association with prematurity and postpartum complications. Scand J Urol Nephrol Suppl 86: 213–222.
  • Eschenbach DA, 1993. Bacterial vaginosis and anaerobes in obstetric gynaecologic infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases 16: S282–S287.
  • Eschenbach DA, McCormick MC, Zupancic JA, Coleman-Phox K, Armstrong MA, Greene JD et al. 2006. Unstudied infants: outcomes of moderately premature infants in the neonatal intensive care unit. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition 91: F238–F244.
  • Escobar GJ, McCormick MC, Zupancic JA, Coleman-Phox K, Armstrong MA, Greene JD et al. 2006. Unstudied infants: outcomes of moderately premature infants in the neonatal intensive care unit. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition 91: F238–F244.
  • Fan YD, Pastorek JG 2nd, Miller JM Jr, Mulvey J. 1987. Acute pyelonephritis in pregnancy. American Journal of Perinatology 4:324–326.
  • Fellman V, Hellstrom-Westas L, Norman M, Westgren M, Kallen K, Lagercrantz H. 2009. One-year survival of extremely preterm infants after active perinatal care in Sweden. Journal of the American Medical Association 301:2225–2233.
  • Finnstrom O, Olausson PO, Sedin G, Serenius F, Svenningsen N, Thiringer K. 1997. The Swedish national prospective study on extremely low birthweight (ELBW) infants. Incidence, mortality, morbidity and survival in relation to level of care. Acta Paediatrica 86:503–511.
  • Flynn CA, Helwig AL, Meurer LN. 1999. Bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy and the risk of prematurity: a meta-analysis. Journal of Family Practice 48:885–892.
  • Galask RP, Varner MW, Petzold CR, Wilbur SL. 1984. Bacterial attachment to the chorioamniotic membranes. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 148:915–928.
  • Gerdes JS. 1991. Clinicopathological approach to the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. Clinical Perinatology 18:361–381.
  • Gervasi MT, Chaiworapongsa T, Naccasha N, Blackwell S, Yoon BH, Maymon E et al. 2001. Phenotypic and metabolic characteristics of maternal monocytes and granulocytes in preterm labor with intact membranes. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 185:1124–1129.
  • Gibbs RS. 1993. Chorioamnionitis and bacterial vaginosis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 169:460–462.
  • Gibbs RS. 2001. The relationship between infections and adverse pregnancy outcomes: an overview. Annals of Periodontology 6:153–163.
  • Goepfert AR, Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW, Hauth JC, Mercer B, Iams J et al.; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. 2001. The Preterm Prediction Study: association between cervical interleukin 6 concentration and spontaneous preterm birth. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 184:483–488.
  • Goepfert AR, Andrews WW, Carlo W, Ramsey PS, Cliver SP, Goldenberg RL et al. 2004. Umbilical cord plasma interleukin-6 concentrations in preterm infants and risk of neonatal morbidity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1191:1375–1381.
  • Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC, Andrews WW. 2000. Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. New England Journal of Medicine 342:1500–1507.
  • Gomez R, Ghezzi F, Romero R, Munoz H, Tolosa JE, Rojas I. 1995. Premature labor and intraamniotic infection. Clinical aspects and role of the cytokines in diagnosis and pathophysiology.Clinics in Perinatology 22:281–342.
  • Gomez R, Romero R, Edwin SS, David C. 1997. Pathogenesis of preterm labor and preterm premature rupture of membranes associated with intraamniotic infection. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 11:135–176.
  • Goncalves LF, Chaiworapongsa T, Romero R. 2002. Intrauterine infection and prematurity. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 8:3–13.
  • Gratacos E, Figueras F, Barranco M, Vila J, Cararach V, Alonso PL. 1998. Spontaneous recovery of bacterial vaginosis during pregnancy is not associated with an improved perinatal outcome. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 77:37–40.
  • Gravett MG, Nelson HP, DeRouen T, Critchlow C, Eschenbach DA, Holmes KK. 1986. Independent associations of bacterial vaginosis and Chlamydia trachomatis infection with adverse pregnancy outcome. Journal of the American Medical Association 256:1899–1903.
  • Gray DJ, Robinson HB, Malone J, Thomson RB Jr. 1992. Adverse outcome in pregnancy following amniotic fluid isolation of Ureaplasma urealyticum. Prenatal Diagnosis 12:111e7.
  • Hanna N, Hanna I, Hleb M, Wagner E, Dougherty J, Balkundi D et al. 2000. Gestational age dependent expression of IL-10 and its receptor in human placental tissues and isolated cytotrophoblasts. Journal of Immunology 164:5721–5728.
  • Hanna N, Bonifacio L, Weinberger B, Reddy P, Murphy S, Romero R et al. 2006. Evidence for interleukin-10-mediated inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression and prostaglandin production in preterm human placenta. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 55:19–27.
  • Hay PE, Lamont RF, Taylor-Robinson D, Morgan DJ, Ison C, Pearson J. 1994. Abnormal bacterial colonisation of the genital tract and subsequent preterm delivery and late miscarriage. British Medical Journal 308:295–298.
  • Hillier SL, Martius J, Krohn M, Kiviat N, Holmes KK, Eschenbach DA. 1988. A case-control study of chorioamnionic infection and histologic chorioamnionitis in prematurity. New England Journal of Medicine 319: 972–978.
  • Hillier SL, Witkin SS, Krohn MA, Watts DH, Kiviat NB, Eschenbach DA. 1993. The relationship of amniotic fluid cytokines and preterm delivery, amniotic fluid infection, histologic chorioamnionitis, and chorioamnion infection. Obstetrics and Gynecology 81:941–948.
  • Hillier SL, Nugent RP, Eschenbach DA, Krohn MA, Gibbs RS, Martin DH. 1995. Association between bacterial vaginosis and preterm delivery of a low-birth-weight infant. The Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. New England Journal of Medicine 333:1737–1742.
  • Hitti J, Riley DE, Krohn MA, Hillier SL, Agnew KJ, Krieger JN et al. 1997. Broad spectrum bacterial rDNA polymerase chain reaction assay for detecting amniotic fluid infection among women in premature labor. Clinical Infectious Diseases 24:1228–1232.
  • Holst E, Goffeng AR, Andersch B. 1994. Bacterial vaginosis and vaginal microorganisms in idiopathic premature labor and association with pregnancy outcome. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 32:176–186.
  • Ilievski V, Hirsch E. 2010. Synergy between viral and bacterial toll-like receptors leads to amplification of inflammatory responses and preterm labor in the mouse. Biology of Reproduction 83:767–773.
  • Janeway C, Travers P, Walport M. 2005. Innate immunity. In: Janeway C, Travers P, Walport M and Capra J, editors. Immunobiology. 6th ed. New York: Garland Science Publishing. p. 37–102.
  • Joesoef MR, Hillier SL, Wiknjosastro G, Sumampouw H, Linnan M, Norojono W. 1995. Intravaginal clindamycin treatment for bacterial vaginosis: effects on preterm delivery and low birth weight. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 173:1527–1531.
  • Kekki M, Kurki T, Pelkonen J, Kurkinen-Raty M, Cacciatore B, Paavonen J. 2001. Vaginal clindamycin in preventing preterm birth and peripartal infections in asymptomatic women with bacterial vaginosis: a randomized, controlled trial. Obstetrics and Gynecology 97:643–648.
  • Kim YM, Romero R, Chaiworapongsa T, Kim GJ, Kim MR, Kuivaniemi H et al. 2004. Toll-like receptor-2 and -4 in the chorioamniotic membranes in spontaneous labor at term and in preterm parturition that are associated with chorioamnionitis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 191:1346–1355.
  • King J, Flenady V. 2002. Prophylactic antibiotics for inhibiting preterm labour with intact membranes. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews(4):CD000246.
  • Kiss H, Petricevic L, Husslein P. 2004. Prospective randomised controlled trial of an infection screening programme to reduce the rate of preterm delivery. British Medical Journal 329:371.
  • Klebanoff MA, Carey JC, Hauth JC, Hillier SL, Nugent RP, Thom EA. 2001. Failure of metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery among pregnant women with asymptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis infection. New England Journal of Medicine 345:487–493.
  • Kruse M, Michelsen SI, Flachs EM, Brønnum-Hansen H, Madsen M, Uldall P. 2009. Lifetime costs of cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 51:622–628.
  • Kuban KC, Leviton A. 1994. Cerebral palsy. New England Journal of Medicine 330:188–195.
  • Kurki T, Sivonen A, Renkonen OV, Savia E, Ylikorkala O. 1992. Bacterial vaginosis in early pregnancy and pregnancy outcome. Obstetrics and Gynecology 80:173–177.
  • Lamont RF, Rose M, Elder MG. 1985. Effect of bacterial products on prostaglandin E production by amnion cells. Lancet 2:1331–1333.
  • Lamont RF, Taylor-Robinson D, Newman M, Wigglesworth J, Elder MG. 1986. Spontaneous early preterm labour associated with abnormal genital bacterial colonization. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 93:804–810.
  • Lamont RF, Taylor-Robinson D, Wigglesworth JS, Furr PM, Evans RT, Elder MG. 1987. The role of mycoplasmas, ureaplasmas and chlamydiae in the genital tract of women presenting in spontaneous early preterm labour. Journal of Medical Microbiology 24:253–257.
  • Lamont RF.Infection and preterm labour. 1998. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 105:1339–1340.
  • Lamont RF.Antibiotics for the prevention of preterm birth. 2000. New England Journal of Medicine 342:581–583.
  • Lamont RF, Taylor-Robinson D, Hay PE. 2001. Antibiotics for adverse outcomes of pregnancy. Lancet 358:1728–1729.
  • Lamont RF. 2003a. Recent evidence associated with the condition of preterm prelabour rupture of the membranes. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology 15:91–99.
  • Lamont RF, Jones BM, Mandal D, Hay PE, Sheehan M. 2003b. The efficacy of vaginal clindamycin for the treatment of abnormal genital tract flora in pregnancy. Infectious Diseases in Obstetrics and Gynecology 11: 181–189.
  • Lamont RF, Duncan SL, Mandal D, Bassett P. 2003c. Intravaginal clindamycin to reduce preterm birth in women with abnormal genital tract flora. Obstetrics and Gynecology 101:516–522.
  • Lamont RF. 2004. Bacterial vaginosis. In: Critchley H, Bennett P, Thornton S, editors. Preterm birth. London: RCOG Press. p. 163–180.
  • Lamont RF, Taylor-Robinson D, Bassett P. 2012. Rescreening for abnormal vaginal flora in pregnancy and re-treating with clindamycin vaginal cream significantly increases cure and improvement rates. International Journal of STD & AIDS 23:565–569.
  • Lamont RF, Nhan-Chang CL, Sobel JD, Workowski K, Conde-Agudelo A, Romero R. 2011. Treatment of abnormal vaginal flora in early pregnancy with clindamycin for the prevention of spontaneous preterm birth: a systematic review and metaanalysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 205:177–190.
  • Larsson PG, Fahraeus L, Carlsson B, Jakobsson T, Forsum U. 2006. Late miscarriage and preterm birth after treatment with clindamycin: a randomised consent design study according to Zelen. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 113:629–637.
  • Mangham LJ, Petrou S, Doyle LW, Draper ES, Marlow N. 2009. The cost of preterm birth throughout childhood in England and Wales. Pediatrics 123:e312–e327.
  • McDonald HM, O’Loughlin JA, Jolley P, Vigneswaran R, McDonald PJ. 1992. Prenatal microbiological risk factors associated with preterm birth. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 99:190–196.
  • McDonald HM, O’Loughlin JA, Vigneswaran R, Jolley PT, McDonald PJ. 1994. Bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy and efficacy of short-course oral metronidazole treatment: a randomized controlled trial. Obstetrics and Gynecology 84:343–348.
  • McDonald HM, O’Loughlin JA, Vigneswaran R, Jolley PT, Harvey JA, Bof A. 1997. Impact of metronidazole therapy on preterm birth in women with bacterial vaginosis flora (Gardnerella vaginalis): a randomised, placebo controlled trial. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 104:1391–1397.
  • McGregor JA, French JI, Jones W, Milligan K, McKinney PJ, Patterson E. 1994. Bacterial vaginosis is associated with prematurity and vaginal fluid mucinase and sialidase: results of a controlled trial of topical clindamycin cream. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 170:1048–1059.
  • Meis PJ, Goldenberg RL, Mercer B, Moawad A, Das A, McNellis D. 1995. The preterm prediction study: significance of vaginal infections. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 173:1231–1235.
  • Mikasa K, Kita E, Sawaki M, Kunimatsu M, Hamada K, Konishi M. 1992. The anti-inflammatory effect of erythromycin in zymosan-induced peritonitis of mice. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 30:339–348.
  • Mitchell MD, Edwin S, Romero RJ. 1990. Prostaglandin biosynthesis by human decidual cells: effects of inflammatory mediators. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 41:35–38.
  • Moore KW, O’Garra A, de Waal Malefyt R, Vieira P, Mosmann TR. 1993. Interleukin-10. Annual Review of Immunology 11:165–190.
  • Morales WJ, Schorr S, Albritton J. 1994. Effect of metronidazole in patients with preterm birth in preceding pregnancy and bacterial vaginosis: a placebo-controlled, double-blind study. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 171:345–347.
  • Morgan DJ, Taylor-Robinson D. 2006. Late miscarriage and preterm birth after treatment with clindamycin: a randomised consent design study according to Zelen. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 113:1483.
  • Norman JE, Bollapragada S, Yuan M, Nelson SM. 2007. Inflammatory pathways in the mechanism of parturition. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 7:S7.
  • Peltier MR. 2003. Immunology of term and preterm labor. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 1:122.
  • Petrou S. 2005. The economic consequences of preterm birth during the first 10 years of life. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 112:S10–S15.
  • Riduan JM, Hillier SL, Utomo B, Wiknjosastro G, Linnan M, Kandun N. 1993. Bacterial vaginosis and prematurity in Indonesia: association in early and late pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 169:175–178.
  • Romero R, Kadar N, Hobbins JC, Duff GW. 1987. Infection and labor: the detection of endotoxin in amniotic fluid. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 157:815–819.
  • Romero R, Mazor M. 1988. Infection and preterm labor. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 31:553–584.
  • Romero R, Brody DT, Oyarzun E, Mazor M, Wu YK, Hobbins JC et al. 1989a. Infection and labor. III. Interleukin-1: a signal for the onset of parturition. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 160: 1117–1123.
  • Romero R, Sirtori M, Oyarzun E, Avila C, Mazor M, Callahan R et al. 1989b. Infection and labor. V. Prevalence, microbiology, and clinical significance of intraamniotic infection in women with preterm labor and intact membranes. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 161:817–824.
  • Romero R, Wu YK, Brody DT, Oyarzun E, Duff GW, Durum SK. 1989c. Human decidua: a source of interleukin-1. Obstetrics and Gynecology 73:31–34.
  • Romero R, Salafia CM, Athanassiadis AP, Hanaoka S, Mazor M, Sepulveda W et al. 1992. The relationship between acute inflammatory lesions of the preterm placenta and amniotic fluid microbiology. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 166:1382–1388.
  • Romero R, Avila C, Sepulveda W. 1993a. The role of systemic and intrauterine infection in preterm labor. In: Fuchs A, Fuchs F and Stubblefield P, editors. Preterm birth: causes, prevention, and management. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 97.
  • Romero R, Mazor M, Munoz H, Gomez R, Galasso M, Sherer DM. 1994. The preterm labor syndrome. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 734:414–429.
  • Schlafer DH, Yuh B, Foley GL, Elssaser TH, Sadowsky D, Nathanielsz PW. 1994. Effect of Salmonella endotoxin administered to the pregnant sheep at 133–142 days gestation on fetal oxygenation, maternal and fetal adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol, and maternal plasma tumor necrosis factor alpha concentrations. Biology of Reproduction 50:1297–1302.
  • Seo K, McGregor JA, French JI. 1992. Preterm birth is associated with increased risk of maternal and neonatal infection. Obstetrics and Gynecology 79:75–80.
  • Shim SS, Romero R, Hong JS, Park CW, Jun JK, Kim BI. 2004. Clinical significance of intra-amniotic inflammation in patients with preterm premature rupture of membranes. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 191:1339–1345.
  • Slattery MM, Morrison JJ. 2002. Preterm delivery. Lancet 360:1489–1497.
  • Spong CY, Ghidini A, Sherer DM, Pezzullo JC, Ossandon M, Eglinton GS. 1997. Angiogenin: a marker for preterm delivery in midtrimester amniotic fluid. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 176:415–418.
  • Svare J, Langhoff-Roos J, Andersen LF, Kryger-Baggesen N, Borch-Christensen H, Heisterberg L et al. 1997. Ampicillin – Metronidazole treatment in idiopathic preterm labour: a randomised controlled multicenter trial. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 104:892–897.
  • Thompson PJ, Greenough A, Gamsu HR, Nicolaides KH, Philpott-Howard J. 1992. Congenital bacterial sepsis in very preterm infants. Journal of Medical Microbiology 36:117–120.
  • Ugwumadu A, Manyonda I, Reid F, Hay P. 2003. Effect of early oral clindamycin on late miscarriage and preterm delivery in asymptomatic women with abnormal vaginal flora and bacterial vaginosis: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 361:983–988.
  • Ugwumadu A, Reid F, Hay P, Manyonda I. 2004. Natural history of bacterial vaginosis and intermediate flora in pregnancy and effect of oral clindamycin. Obstetrics and Gynecology 104:114–119.
  • Ulevitch RJ. 2004. Therapeutics targeting the innate immune system. Nature Reviews Immunology 4:512–520.
  • Vermeulen GM, Bruinse HW. 1999. Prophylactic administration of clindamycin 2% vaginal cream to reduce the incidence of spontaneous preterm birth in women with an increased recurrence risk: a randomised placebo-controlled double-blind trial. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 106:652–657.
  • Viniker DA. 1999. Hypothesis on the role of sub-clinical bacteria of the endometrium (bacteria endometrialis) in gynaecological and obstetric enigmas. Human Reproduction Update 5:373–385.
  • Wang H, Hirsch E. 2003. Bacterially-induced preterm labor and regulation of prostaglandin-metabolizing enzyme expression in mice: the role of toll-like receptor 4. Biology of Reproduction 69:1957–1963.
  • Wang ML, Dorer DJ, Fleming MP, Catlin EA. 2004. Clinical outcomes of near-term infants. Pediatrics 114:372–376.
  • Wenstrom KD, Andrews WW, Tamura T, DuBard MB, Johnston KE, Hemstreet GP. 1996. Elevated amniotic fluid interleukin-6 levels at genetic amniocentesis predict subsequent pregnancy loss. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 175:830–833.
  • Wenstrom KD, Andrews WW, Hauth JC, Goldenberg RL, DuBard MB, Cliver SP. 1998. Elevated second-trimester amniotic fluid interleukin-6 levels predict preterm delivery. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 178:546e50.
  • Workowski KA, Berman S; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2010. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2010. MMWR Recommendations and Reports 59(RR-12):1–110.
  • Worldwide Atosiban versus Beta-agonists Study Group. 2001. Effectiveness and safety of the oxytocin antagonist atosiban versus beta-adrenergic agonists in the treatment of preterm labour. The Worldwide Atosiban versus Beta-agonists Study Group. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 108:133–142.
  • Xiong X, Buekens P, Fraser WD, Beck J, Offenbacher S. 2006. Periodontal disease and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 113:135–143.
  • Yoon BH, Oh SY, Romero R, Shim SS, Han SY, Park JS et al. 2001. An elevated amniotic fluid matrix metalloproteinase-8 level at the time of mid-trimester genetic amniocentesis is a risk factor for spontaneous preterm delivery. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 185:1162–1167.
  • Zhang D, Zhang G, Hayden MS, Greenblatt MB, Bussey C, Flavell RA et al. 2004. A toll-like receptor that prevents infection by uropathogenic bacteria. Science (New York, N.Y.) 303:1522–1526.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.