161
Views
31
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Acute Lung Injury, Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Inhalation Injury: An Overview

&
Pages 91-128 | Published online: 27 Sep 2008

References

  • Ashbaugh D. G., Biglow D. B., Petty D. L., Levine B. E. Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet (1967); 2: 319–32
  • Petty T. L., Ashbaugh D. G. The adult respiratory distress syndrome-clinical features, factors influencing prognosis and principles of management. Chest (1971); 146: 233–239
  • Sloane P. J., Gee M. H., Gottleib J. E., Albertine K. H., Peters S. P., Burns J. R., Machiedo G., Fish J. E. A multicenter registry of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: Physiology and Outcome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1992); 146: 419–426
  • Murray T. L. The adult respiratory distress syndrome (May it rest in peace). Am Rev. Respir. Dis. (1975); 111: 716–718
  • Fishman A. P. Shock lung: A distinctive non-entity. Circulation (1973); 47: 921–923
  • Rinaldo J. E. The prognosis of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Inappropriate pessimism?. Chest (1986); 90: 470–47
  • National Heart and Lung Institute. National Institutes of Health, Respiratory Distress Syndromes: Task Force Report on Problems, Research Approaches, Needs. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC (1972), DHEW Publication No. (NIH)73-432:165-180
  • Villar J., Slutsky A. S. The incidence of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1989); 140: 814–816
  • Thomasen G. E., Morris A. H. Incidence of the adult respiratory distress syndrome in the state of Utah. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1995); 152: 965–971
  • Murray J. F., Matthay M. A., Luce J. M., Flick M. R. An expanded definition of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1988); 138: 720–723
  • Knaus W. A., Sun X., Hakim R. B., Wagner D. P. Evaluation of the definitions for adult respiratory distress syndrome, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1994); 150: 311–317
  • Benard G. R., Artigas A., Brigham K. L., Carlet J., Falke K., Hudson L., Lamy M., Legall J. R., Morris A., Spragg R, The Consensus Committee. The American-European consensus conference on ARDS: Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes and clinical trial coordination. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1994); 149: 818–824
  • Artigas A., Bernare G. R., Carlet J., Dreyfuss D., Gattinoni L., Hudson L., Lamy M., Marini J. J., Mattahy M. A., Pinsly M. R., Spragg R., Suter P. M, the Consensus Committee. The American-European consensus conference on ARDS, Part 2: Ventilatory, pharmacologic, supportive therapy, study design strategies, and issues related to recovery and remodeling. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1998); 157: 1332–1347
  • Whitsett J. A., Stahlman M. T. Impact of advances in physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology on pulmonary disease in neonates. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1998); 157(2)S67–S71
  • Doyle R. L., Szaflarski N., Modin G. W, Wiener-Kronish J. P., Matthay M. A. Identification of patients with acute lung injury: Predictors of mortality. Am. J Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1995); 151: 1818–1824
  • Hudson L. D., Milberg J. A., Anardi D., Maunder R. J. Clinical risks for development of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Crit. Care Med. (1995); 151: 293–301
  • Andreadis N., Petty T. L. Adult respiratory distress syndrome: Problems and progress. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1985); 132: 1344–1346
  • American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical. Care Medicine Consensus Conference., Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovate therapies in sepsis. Chest. (1992); 101: 1644–1655
  • Bone R. C. Why new definitions of sepsis and organ failure are needed. Am. J. Med. (1993); 95: 348–350
  • National Research Council. Fire and Smoke: Understanding the Hazards, Committee on Fire Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council., National Academy of Sciences. National Academy Press, Washington, DC (1986); l–156
  • Haponik E. F., Munster A. M. Respiratory Injury: Smoke Inhalation and Burns. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY (1990); l–416
  • Papirmeister B., Feister A. J., Robinson S. I., Ford R. D. Medical Defense Against Mustard Gas: Toxic Mechanisms and Pharmacological Implications. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. (1991); l–398
  • Brigham K. L. Mechanisms of lung injury. Clin. Chest Med. (1982); 11: 9–24
  • Rinaldo J. E., Christman J. W. Mechanisms and Mediators of adult respiratory distress syndrome. Clin. Chest Med. (1990); 11(4)621–632
  • Niederman M. S., Fein A. M. Sepsis syndrome, adult respiratory distress syndrome, and nosocomial pneumonia: A Common Clinical Sequence. Clin. Chest Med. (1990); 11(4)633–656
  • Laufe M. D., Simeo R. H., Flint A., Keller J. B. Adult respiratory distress syndrome in neutropenic patients. Am. J. Med. (1986); 80: 1022–1025
  • Cochrane C. G. The enhancement of inflammatory injury. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1987); 136: 1–2
  • Tate R. M., Repine J. E. Neutrophils and the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1983); 128: 552–559
  • Brieland J. K., Kunkel R. G., Fantone J. C. Pulmonary alveolar macrophage function during acute inflammatory lung injury. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1987); 135: 1300–1306
  • Heffner J. E., Sahn S. A., Repine J. E. The role of platelets in the adult respiratory distress syndrome: Culprits or bystanders, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1987); 135: 482–492
  • Sybille Y., Reynolds H. Y. Macrophages and polymorphonuclear neutrophils in lung defense and injury. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1990); 1451: 471–501
  • Nicod L. P. Cytokines: Overview. Thorax (1993); 48: 660–667
  • Goodman R. B., Streiter R. M., Martin D. P., Steinberg K. P., Milaberg J. A., Maunder R. J., Kunkel S. L., Walz A., Hudson L. D., Martin T. R. Inflammatory cytokines in patients with persistence of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1996); 154: 602–611
  • Holtzman M. J. Acachidonic Acid Metabolism: Implications of biological chemistry for lung function and disease, Aw. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1991); 143: 188–203
  • Craddock P. R., Fehr J., Brigham K. L., Kronenberg R. S., Jacob H. S. Complement and leukocyte-mediated pulmonary dysfunction in hemodialysis. N Engl. J Med. (1977); 296: 769–714
  • Driscoll K. E. Role of cytokines in pulmonary inflammation and firbosis. Concepts in Inhalation Toxicology, RO McClellan, R Henderson. Taylor and Francis, Washington DC (1995); 471–504
  • House R. V., Kimber I., Driscoll K. E., Schook L. B., Lawrence D (1998) Cytokines as Indicators of Toxicity: The Immune System and Beyond, Society of Toxicology. 37th Annual Meeting Continuing Education Course, Seattle Washington, March, 11998, 1–89
  • Adcock I. M., Barnes P. J. Transcription factors. The Lung: Scientific Foundations 2nd ed, JB West, ER Weibel. Lippencott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, PA. (1997); Vol.1: 255–276
  • Pittet J. F., Mackersie R. C., Martin T. R., Matthay M. A. State of the Art: Biological markers of acute lung injury: Prognostic and pathogenetic significance. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1997); 155: 1187–1205
  • Headley A. S., Tolley E., Meduri G. U. Infections and the inflammatory response to acute respiratory distress syndrome. Chest (1997); 111: 1306–1321
  • Nelson S., Bagby G. J. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and modulation of inflammatory cells in sepsis. Clin. Chest Med. (1996); 17: 319–332
  • Lewis J. F., Jobe A. H. Surfactant and the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1993); 147: 218–233
  • Doyle I. R., Davidson K. G., Barr H. A., Payne N. K., Pfitzner J. Quantity and structure of surfactant proteins vary among patients with alveolar proteinosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1998); 157: 658–664
  • Doyle I. R., Bersten A. D., Nicholas T. E. Surfactant proteins-A and - B are elevated in plasma of patients with acute respiratory failure. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1998); 157: 1217–1229
  • Tomashefski J.F. Pulmonary pathology of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Clin. Chest Med. (1990); 11(4)593–619
  • Bachofen M., Weibel E. R. Structural alterations of lung parenchyma in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Clin. Chest Med. (1982); 3(1)35–56
  • Haselton P. S. Adult respiratory distress syndrome, in Spencer's Pathology of the Lung 5th ed., PS Haselton. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY (1996); 375–399
  • Fukuda Y., Ishizaki M., Masuda Y., Kimura G., Kawanami O., Masugi Y. The role of intraalveolar fibrosis in the process of pulmonary structural remodeling in patients with diffuse alveolar damage. Am. J. Pathol. (1987); 126: 171–182
  • Gattinoni L., Bombino M., Pelosi P., Lissoni A., Pesenti A., Fumagalli R., Tagliabue M. Lung structure and function in different stages of severe adult respiratory distress syndrome. J.A.M.A. (1994); 271: 1772–1779
  • Farjanel J., Hartmann D. J., Guidet B., Luquel L., Offenstadt G. Four markers of collagen metabolism as possible indicators of disease in the adult respiratory distress syndrome, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1993); 147: 1091–1099
  • Niewoehner D. E., Hoidal J. R. Lung fibrosis and emphysema: Divergent responses to a common injury. Science (1982); 217: 359–360
  • Elliot C. G., Rasmusson B. Y., Crapo R. O., Morris A. H., Jensen RL. Prediction of pulmonary function abnormalities after adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1987); 135: 634–638
  • Ghio A. J., Elliot C. G., Crapo R. O., Berlin S. L., Jensen R. L. Impairment after adult respiratory distress syndrome: An evaluation based on American Thoracic Society Recommendations. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1989); 139: 1158–1162
  • Peters J. I., Bell R. C., Prihoda T. J., Harris G., Andrews C., Johanson W. G. Clinical determinants of abnormalities in pulmonary functions in survivors of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1989); 139: 1163–1168
  • McHugh L. G., Milberg J. A., Whitcomb M. E., Schoene R. B., Maunder R. J., Hudson LD. Recovery of function in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome, Am. J. Crit. Care Med. (1994); 150: 90–94
  • Hert R., Albert R. K. Sequelae of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Thorax (1994); 49: 8–13
  • Simpson D. L., Goodman M., Spector S. L., Petty T. L. Long-term follow-up and bronchial reactivity testing in survivors of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1978); 117: 449–454
  • Clark W. R. Smoke inhalation: Models for research. Respiratory Injury: Smoke Inhalation and Burns, EF Haponik, AM Munster. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY (1990); 347–382
  • Davies J. W.L. Challenges for the future. Respiratory Injury: Smoke Inhalation and Burns, EF Haponik, AM Munster. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY (1990); 383–399
  • Schuster DP. State-of-the-Art. ARDS: Clinical Lessons from the Oleic Acid Model of Acute Lung Injury, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1994); 149: 245–260
  • Ashbaugh D. G., Uzawa T. Respiratory and hemodynamic changes after injection of free fatty acids. J. Surg. Res. (1968); 8: 417–423
  • Haslett C, Worthen G. S., Giclas P. C., Morrison D. C., Henson J. E., Henson P. M. The pulmonary vascular sequestration of neutrophils in endotoxemia is initiated by an effect of endotoxin on the neutrophil in the rabbit. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1987); 136: 9–18
  • Meyrick B. O., Brigham K. L. Acute effects of Escherichia coli endotoxin on the pulmonary microcirculation of anesthetized sheep. Structure function relationships. Lab Invest. (1983); 48: 458–470
  • Kitazawa K., Kobayashi T., Shimbamoto T., Hirai K. Effects of methylprednisolone on acute lung paraquat toxicity in sheep. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1988); 137: 173–180
  • Shinozaki S., Kobayashi T., Kubo K., Sekiguchi M. Pulmonary hemodynamics and lung function during chronic paraquat poisoning in sheep: Possible role of reactive oxygen species, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1992); 146: 775–780
  • Lindenschmidt R. C., Selig W. M., Patterson C. E., Verburg K. M., Henry D. P., Forney R. B., Rhoades R. A. Histamine action in paraquat-induced lung injury. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (278); 278: 274–278
  • Well S., Gonzalez K. K., MacArthur C. K., Gillies C., Walsh P. N., McLarty J., Thrall R. S. Bronchoalveolar lavage procoagulant activity in bleomycin-induced lung injury in marmosets, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1987); 136: 124–133
  • Shen A. S., Haslett C., Feldsien D. C., Henson P. M., Cherniack R. M. The intensity of chronic lung inflammation and fibrosis after bleomycin is directly related to the severity of acute injury, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1988); 137: 564–571
  • Horiuchi T., Dcegami M., Cherniack R. M., Mason R. J. Increased surface tension of the lung and surfactant in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in rats. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1996); 154: 1002–1005
  • Dorinsky P. M., Costello J. L., Gadek J. E. Oxygen distribution and utilization after phorbol myristate acetate-induced lung injury. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1988); 138: 1454–1463
  • Gardaz J-P., Py P., Suter P. M., Junod A. F. Effects of oleic acid-, alpha-naphthylthiourea-,and phorbol myristate acetate-induced microvascular damage on indexes of pulmonary endothelial function in anesthetized dogs. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1988); 137: 1350–1355
  • Harris J. D., Jackson F., Moxley M. A., Longmore W. J. Effect of exogenous surfactant instillation on experimental acute lung injury. J. Appl. Physiol. (1989); 139(4)1846–1851
  • Ozawa T., Sugiyama S., Hayakawa M., Satake T., Taki F., Iwata M., Taki K. Existence of leukotoxin 9,10-epoxy-12-octadecenoate in lung lavages from rats breathing pure oxygen and from patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1988); 137: 535–540
  • Beauchamp R. O., Andjelkovich D. A., Kligerman A. D., Morgan K. T., d'Heck A. A critical review of the literature on acrolein toxicity. CRC, Critical Reviews in Toxicology (1985); 14(4)309–380
  • Kimmel E. C., Narayanan T. K., Reboulet J. E., Carpenter R. L. Pulmonary toxicity of co-exposure to acrolein and aerosol particles in F-344 rats - JJ. The Toxicologist (1997); 36(1), Abstract
  • Lowry W. T., Juarez L., Petty C. S., Roberts B. Studies of toxic gas production during actual structural fires in the Dallas area. J. Forens. Sci. (1985); 30: 59–63
  • Clarke F. B. Fire hazard assessment. Fire Protection Handbook 16th Ed, AE Cote. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA (1986); 2–19; 21–22
  • Birky M. M., Clark F. B. Inhalation of toxic products from fires. Bull. NY Acad. Med. (1981); 3: 211–216
  • Grant C. E., Pagni P. J. Fire Safety Science. Proceedings of the First International Symposium, Hemisphere Publishing. Springer-Verlag, BerlinGermany (1986); l–133
  • Emmons H. W. Fire and fire science. Sci. Am. (1974); 231: 21–32
  • Witschi H. P., Brain J. D. Toxicology of Inhaled Materials: General Principles of Inhalation Toxicology, (Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology Vol. 75). Springer-Verlag, BerlinGermany (1985); 1–238
  • Cote A. E. Fire Protection Handbook 16th Ed. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA (1986); 1–92
  • Woolley W. D., Ames S. A., Fardell P. J. Chemical aspects of combustion toxicology of fire. Fire Materials (1979); 3: 110–122
  • Friedman R. The role of chemistry in fire problems: Gas phase combustion kinetics. Fire Res. Abstr. Rev. (1971); 13: 187
  • Terrill J. B., Montgomery R. R., Reinhardt C. F. Toxic gases from fires. Science (1978); 200: 1343–1346
  • Treitman R. D., Burgess W. A., Gold A. Air contaminants encountered by firefighters, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. (1980); 41: 796–804
  • Gold A., Burgess W. A., Clougherty E. V. Exposure of firefighters to toxic air contaminants. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. (1978); 39: 534–539
  • Dressier D. P., Skornick W. A., Kupersmith S. Corticosteroid treatment of experimental smoke inhalation. Ann. Surg. (1976); 183: 46–57
  • Zawacki B. E., Jung R. C., Joyce J., Rincon E. Smoke, burns and the natural history of inhalation injury in fire victims: A correlation of experimental and clinical data. Ann. Surg. (121); 121: 100–121
  • Thomas W. C., O'Haherty E. J. A system for exposing animals to smoke generated in a steady state fashion. Environ. Res. (1980); 23: 326–332
  • Loke J., Paul E., Virgulto J. A., Smith J. A. Rabbit lung after acute smoke inhalation. Arch. Surg. (1984); 119: 956–961
  • Sharar S. R., Heimbach D. M., Howard M. Cardiopulmonary responses after spontaneous inhalation of Douglas fir smoke in goats. J. Trauma. (1988); 28: 164–178
  • Moritz A. R., Henriques F. C., McLean R. The effects of inhaled heat on the air passages and lungs. Am. J. Pathol. (1945); 21: 311–320
  • Fineberg C, Miller B. J., Allbritten FF. Thermal burns of the respiratory tract. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. (1954); 98: 318–325
  • Zirkia B. A., Budd D. C, Floch F., Ferrer J. M. What is clinical smoke poisoning. Ann. Surg. (159); 159: 151–159
  • Stone H. H., Rhame D. W., Corbett J. D. Respiratory burns: A correlation of clinical and laboratory results. Ann. Surg. (1967); 165: 157–163
  • Gump F. E., Zikria B. A., Mashima Y. The effect of interstitial edema on pulmonary function in the dog. J. Trauma. (1972); 12: 764–770
  • Stephenson S. F., Esrig B. C., Polk H. C., Fulton R. L. The pathophysiology of smoke inhalation injury. Ann. Surg. (1975); 182: 652–667
  • Walker H. L., McLeod C. G., McManus W. F. Experimental inhalation injury in the goat. J Trauma (1981); 21: 962–71
  • Prien T., Traber L. D., Hemdon D. N., Traber D. L. Pulmonary edema with smoke inhalation undetected by indicator dilution technique. J. Appl. Physiol (1987); 63: 907–915
  • Shimazu T., Yukioka T., Hubbard G. B. A dose-responsive model of smoke inhalation injury: Severity related alteration in cardiopulmonary function. Ann. Surg. (1987); 206: 89–98
  • Stuab N. C. Pulmonary edema. Physiol. Rev. (1974); 54: 678–724
  • Guyton A. C., Taylor A. E., Drake R. E., Parker J. C. Dynamics of Subatmospheric Pressure in the Pulmonary Interstitial Fluid In lung Liquids, Ciba Foundation Symposium 38. Elveser, New York, NY (1976); 77–100
  • Brigham K. L. Lung lymph composition and flow in normal and abnormal states. Update: Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders, Apfishman. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY (1982); l01–l10
  • Demling R. H., Will J. A., Belzer F. O. Effect of major thermal injury on the pulmonary microcirculation. Surgery (1978); 83: 746–758
  • Taylor A. E. Capillary fluid filtration: Starling forces and lymph flow. Circ. Res. (1981); 49: 557–563
  • Crane C. R., Sanders D. C., Endecott B. R., Abbott J. K. Inhalation Toxicology: IV. Times to Incapacitation and Death for Rats Exposed Continuously to Atmospheric Hydrogen Cyanide Gas, Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Office of Aviation Medicine, Oklahoma City, OK (1985); l–19, FAA-AM-85-4
  • Crane C. R, Sanders D. C., Endecott B. R. Inhalation Toxicology: IX. Times-to Incapacitation for Rats Exposed to Carbon Monoxide Alone, to Hydrogen Cyanide Alone, and To Mixtures of Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen Cyanide, Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Office of Aviation Medicine, Oklahoma City, OK (1989); l–24, DOT/FAA/AM-89/4
  • Hartzell G. E., Packham S. C., Grand A. F., Switzer W. G. Modeling of toxicological effects of fire gases: U. Mathematical modeling of intoxication of rats by carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. J. Fire. Sci. (1985); 3(2)115–118
  • Hartzell G. E., Switzer W. G., Priest D. N. Modeling of toxicological effects of fire gases: V. Mathematical modeling of intoxication of rats by combined carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide atmospheres. J. Fire Sci. (1985); 3(5)330–342
  • Schwartz D. A. Acute inhalation injury. State Art Rev. Occup. Med. (1987); 2: 297–316
  • Hartzell G. E., Packham S. C., Grand A. F., Switzer W. G. Modeling of the toxicological effects of fire gases: UJ. Quantification of post exposure lethality or rats from exposures to HC1 atmospheres. J. Fire Sci. (1985); 3(3)195–207
  • Hartzell G. E., Grand A. F., Switzer W. G. Modeling to toxicological effects of fire gases: VI. Further studies on the toxicity of smoke containing hydrogen chloride. J. Fire Sci. (1987); 5: 368–391
  • Hales C. A., Barkin P. W., Jung W., Trautman E., Lamborghnini D., Herrig N., Burke J. Synthetic smoke with acrolein but not HC1 produces pulmonary edema. J Appl. Physiol. (1988); 64: 1121–1133
  • Crane C. R., Sanders D. C, Endecott B. R., Abbott J. K., Smith P. W. Inhalation Toxicology: 1. Design of a Small-Animal Test system II. Determination of the Relative Toxic Hazards of 75 Aircraft Cabin Materials. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Aviation Medicine, Oklahoma City, OK (1977); l–49, FAA-AM-77-9
  • Crane C. R., Sanders D. C., Endecott B. R., Abbott J. K. Inhalation Toxicology: VII. Times to Incapacitation and Death for Rats Exposed Continuously to Atmospheric Acrolein Vapor, Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Office of Aviation Medicine, Oklahoma City, OK (1986); 1–24, DOT/FA A/ AM-86/5
  • Kaplan H. L., Grand A. F., Hartzell G. E. Combustion Toxicology: Principles and Test Methods. Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., Lancaster, PA (1983); 1–174
  • Babrasukas V., Levin B. C., Gann R. G. A new approach to fire toxicity data for hazard evaluation. Fire J. (1987); 2: 22–28; 70–71
  • Tsuchiya Y. On the unproved synergism if the inhalation toxicity of fire gas. J. Fire Sci. (1986); 4: 346–354
  • Levin B. C., Paabo M., Gurman J. L., Harris S. E. Effects of Exposure to single or multiple combinations of the predominant toxic gasses and low oxygen atmospheres produced in fires. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. (1987); 2: 236–250
  • Hartzell G. E., Emmons H. W. The fractional effective dose model for assessment of hazards due to smoke from materials. J Fire Sci. (1988); 6(5)356–362
  • Hartzell G. E., Grand A. F., Switzer W. G. Modeling of toxicological effects of fire gases: VII. Studies on evaluation of animal models in combustion toxicology. J Fire. 5d. (1988); 6(6)411–431
  • Hartzell G. E. Prediction of the toxic effects of fire effluents. J. Fire Sci. (1989); 7: 179–193
  • Sanders D. C., Endecott B. R. Inhalation Toxicology XI. The Effect of Elevated Temperature on Carbon Monoxide Toxicity, Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Office of Aviation Medicine, Oklahoma City, OK (1990); l–14, DOT/FAA-AM-90/16
  • Hartzell G. E., Stacy H. W., Switzer W. G., Priest D. N., Packham S. C. Modeling of the toxicological effects of fire gases! V: Intoxication of rats by carbon monoxide in the presence of an irritant. J.Fire Sci. (1985); 3: 263–272
  • Higgins E. A., Fiorca V., Thomas A. A., Davis H. V. Acute toxicity of brief exposure to HF, HC1, N02, and with and without CO. Fire Technology (1972); 8: 120–144
  • Crane C. R., Sanders D. C., Endecott B. R. Inhalation Toxicology: X. Times to Incapacitation for Rats Exposed Continuously to Carbon Monoxide, Acrolein, and to Carbon Monoxide and Acrolein Mixture. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Aviation Medicine, Oklahoma City, OK (1990); l–23, DOT/FAA/AM-90/15
  • Sanders D. C, Chaturvedi A. K., Endecott B. R., Ritter R. M., Vu N. Toxicity of Carbon Monoxide-Hydrogen Cyanide Gas Mixtures: Exposure Concentration, Time-to-Incapacitation, Carboxyhemoglobin and Blood Cyanide Parameters, Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Aviation Medicine. Oklahoma City, OK (1994); l–11, DOT/FAA/AM-93/7
  • Kimmerle G. Aspects and methodology for the evaluation of toxicological parameters during fire exposure. J. Fire FlammJComb.Tox. (1974); 1: 4–12
  • Levin B. C., Paabo M., Gurman J. L., Harris S. E., Bruan E. Toxicological interactions between carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Toxicology (1987); 2: 135–164
  • Rodkey F. L., Collison H. A. Effects of oxygen and carbon dioxide on carbon monoxide toxicity. J. Comb. Tox. (1979); 6: 208–216
  • Crane C. R. Are the combined toxicities of CO and C02 synergistic?. J. Fire Sci. (1985); 3: 143–152
  • Hartzell G.E., Switzer W. G. On the toxicities of atmospheres containing both CO and C02. J.Fire Sci. (1985); 3: 307–315
  • Levin B. C. New research avenues in toxicology: 7-gas N-gas model, toxicant suppressants, and genetic toxicology. Toxicology (1996); 115: 89–116
  • Boren H. G. Pulmonary response to inhaled carbon: A model of lung injury. Yale J. Biol. Med. (1968); 40: 364–388
  • Shinozawa Y. C., Hales C. A., Jung W., Burke J. W. Ibuprofen prevents synthetic smoke-induced pulmonary edema. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1986); 134: 1145–1153
  • Beeley J. M., Crow J., Jones J. G. Mortality and lung histopathology after inhalation lung injury: The effect of corticosteroids. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1986); 133: 191–198
  • Wald P. H., Balmes J. R. Respiratory effects of short-term high intensity toxic inhalations: Smoke, gases, and fumes. J. Intensive Care Med. (1987); 2: 260–278
  • Carpenter R. L., Kimmel E. C. Use of an aerosol deposition model to compare inhalation toxicity risk between laboratory and field exposures. Toxicological Sciences (1998); 42(1-S)252, abstract - (submitted Drug and Chemical Toxicology-this issue)
  • Jarabek A. M., Menache M. G., Overton J. H., Dourson M. L., Miller F. J. Inhalation reference dose (RfD): An application of interspecies dosimetry modeling for risk assessment of insoluble particles. Health Physics (1989); 57(S 1)177–183

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.