Management of post traumatic stress disorder after childbirth: a review

References

• Bydlowski M, Raoul-Duval A. Un avatar psychique méconnu de la puerpéralité: la névrose traumatique post-obstétricale. Perspectives Psychiatriques 1978;4:321–328.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Olde E, van der Hart O, Kleber R, van Son M. Posttraumatic stress following childbirth: a review. Clin Psychol Rev 2006;26:1–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joseph S, Bailham D. Traumatic childbirth: what we know and what we can do. RCM Midwives 2004;7(6):258–261.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beck CT. Birth trauma – in the eye of the beholder. Nurs Res 2004;53:28–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moleman N, Vanderhart O, Vanderkolk BA. The partus stress reaction - a neglected etiologic factor in postpartum psychiatric disorders. J Nerv Mental Dis 1992;180:271–272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballard CG, Stanley AK, Brockington IF. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after childbirth. Br J Psychiatr 1995;166:525–528.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen S. A qualitative analysis of the process, mediating variables and impact of traumatic childbirth. J Reprod Infant Psychol 1998;16:107–131.
   Google Scholar
• Fones C. Posttraumatic stress disorder occurring after painful childbirth. J Nerv Mental Disease 1996;184:195–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds JL. Post-traumatic stress disorder after childbirth: the phenomenon of traumatic birth. Can Med Assoc J 1997;156:831–835.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creedy DK, Shochet IM, Horsfall J. Childbirth and the development of acute trauma symptoms: incidence and contributing factors. Birth-Issue Perinat Care 2000;27:104–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck CT, Watson S. Impact of birth trauma on breast-feeding – a tale of two pathways. Nurs Res 2008;57:228–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alder J, Stadlmayr W, Tschudin S, Bitzer J. Post-traumatic symptoms after childbirth: what should we offer? J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 2006;27:107–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies J, Slade P, Wright I, Stewart P. Posttraumatic stress symptoms following childbirth and mothers' perceptions of their infants. Infant Mental Health J 2008;29:537–554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemola S, Stadlmayr W, Grob A. Maternal adjustment five months after birth: the impact of the subjective experience of childbirth and emotional support from the partner. J Reprod Infant Psychol 2007;25:190–202.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls K, Ayers S. Childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder in couples: A qualitative study. Br J Health Psychol 2007;12:491–509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parfitt YM, Ayers S. The effect of post-natal symptoms of post-traumatic stress and depression on the couple's relationship and parent-baby bond. J Reprod Infant Psychol 2009;7:127–142.
   Google Scholar
• Ayers S, Harris R, Sawyer A, Parfitt Y, Ford E. Posttraumatic stress disorder after childbirth: analysis of symptom presentation and sampling. J Affect Disord 2009;119:200–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayers S. Delivery as a traumatic event: prevalence, risk factors, and treatment for postnatal posttraumatic stress disorder. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2004;47:552–567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayers S, Joseph S, McKenzie-McHarg K, Slade P, Wijma K. Post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth: current issues and recommendations for future research. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 2008;29:240–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcorn KL, O’Donovan A, Patrick JC, Creedy D, Devilly GJ. A prospective longitudinal study of the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder resulting from childbirth events. Psychol Med 2010; First View:1–11.
   Google Scholar
• Soderquist J, Wijma B, Thorbert G, Wijma K. Risk factors in pregnancy for post-traumatic stress and depression after childbirth. BJOG – an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2009;116:672–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Son M, Verkerk G, van der Hart O, Komproe I, Pop V. Prenatal depression, mode of delivery and perinatal dissociation as predictors of postpartum posttraumatic stress: an empirical study. Clin Psychol Psychother 2005;12:297–312.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White T, Matthey S, Boyd K, Barnett B. Postnatal depression and post-traumatic stress after childbirth: Prevalence, course and co-occurrence. J Reprod Infant Psychol 2006;24:107–120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaers S, Waschke M, Ehlert U. Depressive symptoms and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in women after childbirth. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 2008;29:61–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soderquist J, Wijma B, Wijma K. The longitudinal course of post-traumatic stress after childbirth. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 2006;27:113–119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adewuya AO, Ologun YA, Ibigbami OS. Post-traumatic stress disorder after childbirth in Nigerian women: prevalence and risk factors. BJOG – an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2006;113:284–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paul TA. Prevalence of posttraumatic stress symptoms after childbirth: does ethnicity have an impact? J Perinat Educ 2008;17:17–26.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Onoye JM, Goebert D, Morland L, Matsu C, Wright T. PTSD and postpartum mental health in a sample of Caucasian, Asian, and Pacific Islander women. Arch Womens Mental Health 2009;12:393–400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayers S, Eagle A, Waring H. The effects of childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder on women and their relationships: a qualitative study. Psychol Health Med 2006;11:389–398.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Slade P. Towards a conceptual framework for understanding post-traumatic stress symptoms following childbirth and implications for further research. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 2006;27:99–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin CR, Andrews B, Valentine JD. Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. J Consult Clin Psychol 2000;68:748–766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozer EJ, Best SR, Lipsey TL, Weiss DS. Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 2003;129:52–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen MM, Ansara D, Schei B, Stuckless N, Stewart DE. Posttraumatic stress disorder after pregnancy, labor, and delivery. J Womens Health 2004;13:315–324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wijma K, Soderquist J, Wijma B. Posttraumatic stress disorder after childbirth: a cross sectional study. J Anxiety Disord 1997;11:587–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyons S. A prospective study of post traumatic stress symptoms 1 month following childbirth in a group of 42 first-time mothers. J Reprod Infant Psychol 1998;16:91–105.
   Google Scholar
• Czarnocka J, Slade P. Prevalence and predictors of post-traumatic stress symptoms following childbirth. Br J Clin Psychol 2000;39:35–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soet JE, Brack GA, Dilorio C. Prevalence and predictors of women's experience of psychological trauma during childbirth. Birth-Issue Perinatal Care 2003;30:36–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keogh E, Ayers S, Francis H. Does anxiety sensitivity predict post-traumatic stress symptoms following childbirth? A preliminary report. Cognit Behav Ther 2002; 31:145–155.
   Google Scholar
• Ayers S, Pickering AD. Do women get posttraumatic stress disorder as a result of childbirth? A prospective study of incidence. Birth-Issue Perinatal Care 2001;28:111–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lev-Wiesel R, Daphna-Tekoah S, Hallak M. Childhood sexual abuse as a predictor of birth-related posttraumatic stress and postpartum posttraumatic stress. Child Abuse Neglect 2009;33:877–887.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forray A, Mayes LC, Magriples U, Epperson CM. Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder in pregnant women with prior pregnancy complications. J Maternal-Fetal Neonatal Med 2009;22:522–527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edworthy Z, Chasey R, Williams H. The role of schema and appraisals in the development of post-traumatic stress symptoms following birth. J Reprod Infant Psychol 2008;26:123–138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauer BJA, Wessel I, Engelhard IM, Peeters LL, Dalgleish T. Prepartum autobiographical memory specificity predicts post-traumatic stress symptoms following complicated pregnancy. Memory 2009;17:544–556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leeds L, Hargreaves I. The psychological consequences of childbirth. J Reproduct Infant Psychol 2008;26:108–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cigoli V, Gilli G, Saita E. Relational factors in psychopathological responses to childbirth. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 2006;27:91–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olde E, van der Hart O, Kleber R, van Son M, Wijnen H, Pop V. Peritraumatic dissociation and emotions as predictors of PTSD symptoms following childbirth. J Trauma Dissoc 2005;6:125–142.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stadlmayr W, Bitzer J, Amsler F, Simoni H, Alder J, Surbek D, Buergin D. Acute stress reactions in the first 3 weeks postpartum: a study of 219 parturients. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2007;135:65–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts NP, Kitchiner NJ, Kenardy J, Bisson JI. Systematic review and meta-analysis of multiple-session early interventions following traumatic events. Am J Psychiatr 2009;166:293–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers A, Bisson J, Clark DM, Creamer M, Pilling S, Richards D, Schnurr PP, Turner S, Yule W. Do all psychological treatments really work the same in posttraumatic stress disorder? Clin Psychol Rev 2009;30:269–276.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cloitre M. Effective psychotherapies for posttraumatic stress disorder: a review and critique. CNS Spect 2009;14 (Suppl. 1):32–43.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ravindran LN, Stein MB. Pharmacotherapy of PTSD: premises, principles, and priorities. Brain Res 2009;1293:24–39.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gamble JA, Creedy DK, Webster J, Moyle W. A review of the literature on debriefing or non-directive counselling to prevent postpartum emotional distress. Midwifery 2002;18:72–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell J, Dyregrov A. Traumatic stress in disaster workers and emergency personnel. Prevention and intervention. In Wilson JP, Raphael B, editors. International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes. New York: Plenum Press, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Harvey AG, Bryant RA, Tarrier N. Cognitive behaviour therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Clin Psychol Rev 2003;23:501–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro F. Efficacy of the eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. J Traumat Stress 1989;2:199–223.
   Google Scholar
• Sorenson DS. Healing traumatizing provider interactions among women through short-term group therapy. Arch Psychiatr Nurs 2003;17:259–269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priest SR, Henderson J, Evans SF, Hagan R. Stress debriefing after childbirth: a randomised controlled trial. Med J Australia 2003;178:542–545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryding EL, Wijma K, Wijma B. Postpartum counselling after an emergency cesarean. Clin Psychol Psychotherapy 1998;5:231–237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryding EL, Wiren E, Johansson G, Ceder B, Dahlstrom AM. Group counseling for mothers after emergency cesarean section: a randomized controlled trial of intervention. Birth-Issues Perinatal Care 2004;31:247–253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kershaw K, Jolly J, Bhabra K, Ford J. Randomised controlled trial of community debriefing following operative delivery. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology 2005;112:1504–1509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamble J, Creedy D, Moyle W, Webster J, McAllister M, Dickson P. Effectiveness of a counseling intervention after a traumatic childbirth: A randomized controlled trial. Birth-Issues Perinatal Care 2005;32:11–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selkirk R, McLaren S, Ollerenshaw A, McLachlan AJ, Moten J. The longitudinal effects of midwife-led postnatal debriefing on the psychological health of mothers. J Reprod Infant Psychol 2006;24:133–147.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz M, Wilner N, Alvarez W. Impact of event scale - measure of subjective stress. Psychosom Med 1979;41:209–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derogatis L, Lipman R, Covi L, Rickels K. Dimensions of outpatient neurotic pathology: comparison of a clinical vs. an empirical assessment. J Consult Clin Psychol 1970;34:164–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wijma K, Wijma B, Zar M. Psychometric aspects of the W-DEQ; a new questionnaire for the measurement of fear of childbirth. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 1998;19:84–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox J, Holden J, SR. Detection of postnatal depression: development of the 10 item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Br J Psychiatry 1987;150:782–786.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorenson DS. Developmental aspects of pregnancy: correlates of self-satisfaction [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona; 1990.
   Google Scholar
• Sorenson DS. Quality of provider interactions inventory [unpublished]. Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University; 2000a.
   Google Scholar
• Sorenson DS. Posttraumatic stress disorder inventory [unpublished]. Brookings, SD: South Dakota State University, 2000b.
   Google Scholar
• Coopersmith S. Self-esteem inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1981.
   Google Scholar
• Beck AT. Beck depression inventory. 2nd ed. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Company; 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Spielberger CD. State-trait anxiety inventory for adults. Redwood City, CA: Mind Garden; 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Russell DW. UCLA loneliness scale (Version 3): reliability, validity and factor structure. J Person Assess 1996;66:20–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster J, Linnane JW, Dibley LM, Hinson JK, Starrenburg SE, Roberts JA. Measuring social support in pregnancy: can it be simple and meaningful? Birth-Issues Perinat Care 2000;27:97–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovibond S, Lovibond PF, editors. Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales. 2nd ed. Sydney: Psychology Foundation of Australia; 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Sheehan D, Lecrubier Y, Sheehan H, Amorim P, Janavs J, Weiller E, Hergueta T, Baker R, Dunbar GC. The mini-international neuropsychiatric interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. J Clin Psychiatr 1998;59:22–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spanier G. Manual for the dyadic adjustment scale. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems; 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Marut JS, Mercer RT. Comparisons of primiparas' perceptions of vaginal and cesarean births. Nurs Res 1979;28:260–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clement S, Wilson J, Sikorski J. The development of an intrapartum intervention score based on women's experiences. J Reproduct Infant Psychology 1999;17:53–62.
   Google Scholar
• Abidin R. Parenting stress index professional manual. Charlottesville, VA: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Ryding EL, Wijma B, Wijma K. Posttraumatic stress reactions after emergency cesarean section. Acta Obstetricia Et Gynecologica Scandinavica 1997;76:856–861.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamble J, Creedy DK. A counselling model for postpartum women after distressing birth experiences. Midwifery 2009;25:e21–e30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayers S, McKenzie-McHarg K, Eagle A. Cognitive behaviour therapy for postnatal post-traumatic stress disorder: case studies. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 2007;28:177–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandstrom M, Wiberg B, Willman AK, Wikman M, Hogberg U. A pilot study of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing treatment (EMDR) for post-traumatic stress after childbirth. Midwifery 2008;24:62–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey M, Price S. Exploring women's experience of a birth afterthoughts service. Evidence Based Midwifery 2008;6:52–58.
   Google Scholar
• Ford E, Ayers S. Stressful events and support during birth: The effect on anxiety, mood and perceived control. J Anxiety Disord 2009;23:260–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy HP, MacDonald EL. “Altered consciousness” during childbirth: potential clues to post traumatic stress disorder? J Midwifery Women's Health 2002;47:380–382.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnston-Robledo I, Barnack J. Psychological issues in childbirth: potential roles for psychotherapists. Women Therapy 2004;27:133–150.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar