A clinical comparison of penetrating and blunt traumatic brain injuries

References

• Spencer W, Horsley V. On the changes produced in the circulation and respiration by increase of the intra-cranial pressure or tension. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 1891; 182: 201–254
   Google Scholar
• Horsley V. The destructive effects of small projectiles. Nature 1894; 50: 104–108
   Google Scholar
• Horsley V. Remarks on gunshot wounds of the head: Made in opening a discussion at the Medical Society of London on February 8th, (1915). British Medical Journal 1915; 1: 321–323
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maiden N. Historical overview of wound ballistics research. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology 2009; 5: 85–89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fackler ML, Dougherty PJ. Theodor Kocher and the Scientific Foundation of Wound Ballistics. Surgery, Gynecology & Obstetrics 1991; 172: 153–160
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fackler ML, What's wrong with the wounds ballistics literature and why. San Francisco, CA: Division of Military Trauma Research. Letterman ARMY Institute of Research; (1987)
   Google Scholar
• La Garde, La Col. Gunshot injuries: How they are inflicted, their complications and treatment. William Wood & Co, New York, NY 1914
   Google Scholar
• Butcher I, Maas AI, Lu J, Marmarou A, Murray GD, Mushkudiani NA, McHugh GS, Steyerberg EW. Prognostic value of admission blood pressure in traumatic brain injury: Results from the IMPACT study. Journal of Neurotrauma 2007; 24: 294–302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maas AI, Steyerberg EW, Butcher I, Dammers R, Lu J, Marmarou A, Mushkudiani NA, McHugh GS, Murray GD. Prognostic value of computerized tomography scan characteristics in traumatic brain injury: Results from the IMPACT study. Journal of Neurotrauma 2007; 24: 303–314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hukkelhoven CW, Steyerberg EW, Habbema JD, Farace E, Marmarou A, Murray GD, Marshall LF, Maas AI. Predicting outcome after traumatic brain injury: Development and validation of a prognostic score based on admission characteristics. Journal of Neurotrauma 2005; 22: 1025–1039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu J, Marmarou A, Choi S, Maas A, Murray G, Steyerberg EW. Mortality from traumatic brain injury. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplement 2005; 95: 281–285
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murray GD, Butcher I, McHugh GS, Lu J, Mushkudiani NA, Maas AI, Marmarou A, Steyerberg EW. Multivariable prognostic analysis in traumatic brain injury: Results from the IMPACT study. Journal of Neurotrauma 2007; 24: 329–337
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petroni G, Quaglino M, Lujan S, Kovalevski L, Rondina C, Videtta W, Carney N, Temkin N, Chesnut R. Early prognosis of severe traumatic brain injury in an urban argentinian trauma center. Journal of Trauma 2010; 68: 564–570
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamoun RB, Robertson CS, Gopinath SP. Outcome in patients with blunt head trauma and a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 3 at presentation. Journal of Neurosurgery 2009; 111: 683–687
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hukkelhoven CW, Steyerberg EW, Rampen AJ, Farace E, Habbema JD, Marshall LF, Murray GD, Maas AI. Patient age and outcome following severe traumatic brain injury: An analysis of 5600 patients. Journal of Neurosurgery 2003; 99: 666–673
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gennarelli TA, Spielman GM, Langfitt TW, Gildenberg PL, Harrington T, Jane JA, Marshall LF, Miller JD, Pitts LH. Influence of the type of intracranial lesion on outcome from severe head injury. Journal of Neurosurgery 1982; 56: 26–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fearnside MR, Cook RJ, McDougall P, McNeil RJ. The Westmead Head Injury Project outcome in severe head injury. A comparative analysis of pre-hospital, clinical and CT variables. British Journal of Neurosurgery 1993; 7: 267–279
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldrich EF, Eisenberg HM, Saydjari C, Foulkes MA, Jane JA, Marshall LF, Young H, Marmarou A. Predictors of mortality in severely head-injured patients with civilian gunshot wounds: A report from the NIH Traumatic Coma Data Bank. Surgical Neurology 1992; 38: 418–423
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kaufman HH, Makela ME, Lee KF, Haid RW, Jr., Gildenberg PL. Gunshot wounds to the head: A perspective. Neurosurgery 1986; 18: 689–695
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman HH, Levy ML, Stone JL, Masri LS, Lichtor T, Lavine SD, Fitzgerald LF, Apuzzo ML. Patients with Glasgow Coma Scale scores 3, 4, 5 after gunshot wounds to the brain. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America 1995; 6: 701–714
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suddaby L, Weir B, Forsyth C. The management of .22 caliber gunshot wounds of the brain: A review of 49 cases. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 1987; 14: 268–272
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martins RS, Siqueira MG, Santos MT, Zanon-Collange N, Moraes OJ. Prognostic factors and treatment of penetrating gunshot wounds to the head. Surgical Neurology 2003; 60: 98–104, discussion 104
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Faul M, Xu L, Wald MM, Coronado VG, Traumatic brain injury in the United States: emergency department visits, hospitalizations and deaths 2002–2006. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; (2010)
   Google Scholar
• Demetriades D, Kuncir E, Murray J, Velmahos GC, Rhee P, Chan L. Mortality prediction of head Abbreviated Injury Score and Glasgow Coma Scale: Analysis of 7,764 head injuries. Journal of the American College of Surgeons 2004; 199: 216–222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gennarelli TA, Champion HR, Copes WS, Sacco WJ. Comparison of mortality, morbidity, and severity of 59,713 head injured patients with 114,447 patients with extracranial injuries. Journal of Trauma 1994; 37: 962–968
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maegele M, Engel D, Bouillon B, Lefering R, Fach H, Raum M, Buchheister B, Schaefer U, Klug N, Neugebauer E. Incidence and outcome of traumatic brain injury in an urban area in Western Europe over 10 years. European Surgical Research 2007; 39: 372–379
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosso A, Brazinova A, Janciak I, Wilbacher I, Rusnak M, Mauritz W. Severe traumatic brain injury in Austria II: Epidemiology of hospital admissions. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 2007; 119: 29–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peek-Asa C, McArthur D, Hovda D, Kraus J. Early predictors of mortality in penetrating compared with closed brain injury. Brain Injury 2001; 15: 801–810
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sosin DM, Nelson DE, Sacks JJ. Head injury deaths: The enormity of firearms. Journal of the American Medical Association 1992; 268: 791
   Google Scholar
• Sosin DM, Sacks JJ, Smith SM. Head injury-associated deaths in the United States from (1979) to (1986). Journal of the American Medical Association 1989; 262: 2251–2255
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sosin DM, Sniezek JE, Waxweiler RJ. Trends in death associated with traumatic brain injury, (1979) through (1992). Success and failure. Journal of the American Medical Association 1995; 273: 1778–1780
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gotsch KE, Annest JL, Mercy JA, Ryan GW. Surveillance for fatal and nonfatal firearm-related injuries-United States – 1993–1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report CDC Surveillance Summary 2001; 50: 1–34
   Google Scholar
• Vodovotz Y, Clermont G, Hunt CA, Lefering R, Bartels J, Seydel R, Hotchkiss J, Ta'asan S, Neugebauer E, An G. Evidence-based modeling of critical illness: An initial consensus from the Society for Complexity in Acute Illness. Journal of Critical Care 2007; 22: 77–84
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adekoya N, Thurman DJ, White DD, Webb KW. Surveillance for traumatic brain injury deaths–United States, 1989–1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report CDC Surveillance Summary 2002; 51: 1–14
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adekoya N, Majumder R. Fatal traumatic brain injury, West Virginia, 1989–1998. Public Health Report 2004; 119: 486–492
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fatal and non-fatal injury data, 1992–1995. WISQARS (Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System). The National Vital Statistics System (NVSS) and the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System - All Injury Program (NEISS-AIP). Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control;
   Google Scholar
• Beaman V, Annest JL, Mercy JA, Kresnow M, Pollock DA. Lethality of firearm-related injuries in the United States population. Annals of Emergency Medcine 2000; 35: 258–266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siccardi D, Cavaliere R, Pau A, Lubinu F, Turtas S, Viale GL. Penetrating craniocerebral missile injuries in civilians: A retrospective analysis of 314 cases. Surgical Neurology 1991; 35: 455–460
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavaliere R, Cavenago L, Siccardi D, Viale GL. Gunshot wounds of the brain in civilians. Acta Neurochirurgica (Wien) 1988; 94: 133–136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murano T, Mohr AM, Lavery RF, Lynch C, Homnick AT, Livingston DH. Civilian craniocerebral gunshot wounds: An update in predicting outcomes. American Surgery 2005; 71: 1009–1014
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Byrnes DP, Crockard HA, Gordon DS, Gleadhill CA. Penetrating craniocerebral missile injuries in the civil disturbances in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Surgery 1974; 61: 169–176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens BD, Kragh JF, Jr., Wenke JC, Macaitis J, Wade CE, Holcomb JB. Combat wounds in operation Iraqi Freedom and operation Enduring Freedom. Journal of Trauma 2008; 64: 295–299
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galarneau MR, Woodruff SI, Dye JL, Mohrle CR, Wade AL. Traumatic brain injury during Operation Iraqi Freedom: Findings from the United States Navy-Marine Corps Combat Trauma Registry. Journal of Neurosurgery 2008; 108: 950–957
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wade CE, Unpublished data from an 8-year registry of 25,486 combat casualties from the Middle East conflicts. Preliminary analysis considered 5,547 patients with recorded TBI. Personal Communication 2010
   Google Scholar
• Warden D. Military TBI during the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2006; 21: 398–402
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin EM, Lu WC, Helmick K, French L, Warden DL. Traumatic brain injuries sustained in the Afghanistan and Iraq wars. American Journal of Nursing 2008; 108: 40–47; quiz 47–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DePalma RG, Burris DG, Champion HR, Hodgson MJ. Blast injuries. New England Journal of Medicine 2005; 352: 1335–1342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wade CE, Ritenour AE, Eastridge BJ, Young LA, Blackbourne LH, Holcomb JB. Explosion injuries treated at combat support hospitals in the global war on terrorism. Explosion and blast-related injuries, J Atkins, N Elsayed. Elsevier Inc, Academic Press, Maryland Heights, MO 2008; 41–72
   Google Scholar
• Kelly JF, Ritenour AE, McLaughlin DF, Bagg KA, Apodaca AN, Mallak CT, Pearse L, Lawnick MM, Champion HR, Wade CE, et al. Injury severity and causes of death from Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom: 2003–2004 versus (2006). Journal of Trauma 2008; 64(Suppl 2)21–26, discussion 26–27
   Google Scholar
• Belmont PJ, Jr., Goodman GP, Zacchilli M, Posner M, Evans C, Owens BD. Incidence and epidemiology of combat injuries sustained during “the surge” portion of operation Iraqi Freedom by a U.S. Army brigade combat team. Journal of Trauma 2010; 68: 204–210
   Google Scholar
• Kosashvili Y, Hiss J, Davidovic N, Lin G, Kalmovic B, Melamed E, Levy Y, Blumenfeld A. Influence of personal armor on distribution of entry wounds: Lessons learned from urban-setting warfare fatalities. Journal of Trauma 2005; 58: 1236–1240
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell RS, Vo AH, Neal CJ, Tigno J, Roberts R, Mossop C, Dunne JR, Armonda RA. Military traumatic brain and spinal column injury: A 5-year study of the impact blast and other military grade weaponry on the central nervous system. Journal of Trauma 2009; 66(Suppl 4)104–111
   Google Scholar
• Warden DL, Ryan LM, Helmick KM, et al. War neurotrauma: The Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center (DBVIC) experience at Walter Reed Army Medical Center (WRAMC). Journal of Neurotrauma 2005; 22: 1178
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 1974; 2: 81–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teasdale G, Murray G, Parker L, Jennett B. Adding up the Glasgow Coma Score. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplement (Wien) 1979; 28: 13–16
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McNett M. A review of the predictive ability of Glasgow Coma Scale scores in head-injured patients. Journal of Neuroscience Nursing 2007; 39: 68–75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaffrey ME, Polin RS, Phillips CD, Germanson T, Shaffrey CI, Jane JA. Classification of civilian craniocerebral gunshot wounds: A multivariate analysis predictive of mortality. Journal of Neurotrauma 1992; 9(Suppl 1)279–285
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall LF, Marshall SB, Klauber MR, et al. A new classification of head injury based on computerised tomography. Journal of Neurosurgery 1991; 75(Suppl)14–20
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarabi B, Alden TD, Chestnut RM, et al. Part 2: Prognosis in penetrating brain injury. Journal of Trauma 2001; 51(Suppl 2)44–86
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aarabi B. Surgical outcome in 435 patients who sustained missile head wounds during the Iran-Iraq War. Neurosurgery 1990; 27: 692–695, discussion 695
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandvold B, Levi L, Feinsod M, George ED. Penetrating craniocerebral injuries in the Israeli involvement in the Lebanese conflict, 1982–1985. Analysis of a less aggressive surgical approach. Journal of Neurosurgery 1990; 72: 15–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moppett IK. Traumatic brain injury: Assessment, resuscitation and early management. Bitish Journal of Anaesthesia 2007; 99: 18–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, LaMantia AS, McNamara JO, White LE, Neuroscience. Sinauer Associates; 2008
   Google Scholar
• Martins ET, Linhares MN, Sousa DS, Schroeder HK, Meinerz J, Rigo LA, Bertotti MM, Gullo J, Hohl A, Dal-Pizzol F, et al. Mortality in severe traumatic brain injury: A multivariated analysis of 748 Brazilian patients from Florianopolis City. Journla of Trauma 2009; 67: 85–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman HH, Schwab K, Salazar AM. A national survey of neurosurgical care for penetrating head injury. Surgical Neurology 1991; 36: 370–377
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eisenberg HM, Gary HE, Jr., Aldrich EF, Saydjari C, Turner B, Foulkes MA, Jane JA, Marmarou A, Marshall LF, Young HF. Initial CT findings in 753 patients with severe head injury. A report from the NIH Traumatic Coma Data Bank. Journal of Neurosurgery 1990; 73: 688–698
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polin RS, Shaffrey ME, Phillips CD, Germanson T, Jane JA. Multivariate analysis and prediction of outcome following penetrating head injury. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America 1995; 6: 689–699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demetriades D, Kuncir E, Velmahos GC, Rhee P, Alo K, Chan LS. Outcome and prognostic factors in head injuries with an admission Glasgow Coma Scale score of 3. Archives of Surgery 2004; 139: 1066–1068
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Valadka AB, Gopinath SP, Mizutani Y, Chacko AG, Robertson CS. Similarities between civilian gunshot wounds to the head and nongunshot head injuries. Journal of Trauma 2000; 48: 296–302
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levy ML, Rezai A, Masri LS, Litofsky SN, Giannotta SL, Apuzzo ML, Weiss MH. The significance of subarachnoid hemorrhage after penetrating craniocerebral injury: Correlations with angiography and outcome in a civilian population. Neurosurgery 1993; 32: 532–540
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman JD, Pasquale MD, Garcia R, Cipolle MD, Mark Li P, Wasser TE. Use of admission Glasgow Coma Score, pupil size, and pupil reactivity to determine outcome for trauma patients. Journal of Trauma 2003; 55: 437–442, discussion 442–443
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levy ML, Masri LS, Lavine S, Apuzzo ML. Outcome prediction after penetrating craniocerebral injury in a civilian population: Aggressive surgical management in patients with admission Glasgow Coma Scale scores of 3, 4, or 5. Neurosurgery 1994; 35: 77–84, discussion 84–85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koskinen S. Quality of life 10 years after a very severe traumatic brain injury (TBI): The perspective of the injured and the closest relative. Brain Injury 1998; 12: 631–648
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoofien D, Gilboa A, Vakil E, Donovick PJ. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) 10–20 years later: A comprehensive outcome study of psychiatric symptomatology, cognitive abilities and psychosocial functioning. Brain Injury 2001; 15: 189–209
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danish SF, Barone D, Lega BC, Stein SC. Quality of life after hemicraniectomy for traumatic brain injury in adults. A review of the literature. Neurosurgical Focus 2009; 26: E2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fang R, Dorlac GR, Allan PF, Dorlac WC. Intercontinental aeromedical evacuation of patients with traumatic brain injuries during Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom. Neurosurgical Focus 2010; 28: E11
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bell RS, Mossop CM, Dirks MS, Stephens FL, Mulligan L, Ecker R, Neal CJ, Kumar A, Tigno T, Armonda RA. Early decompressive craniectomy for severe penetrating and closed head injury during wartime. Neurosurgical Focus 2010; 28: E1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black KL, Hanks RA, Wood DL, Zafonte RD, Cullen N, Cifu DX, Englander J, Francisco GE. Blunt versus penetrating violent traumatic brain injury: Frequency and factors associated with secondary conditions and complications. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2002; 17: 489–496
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harrison-Felix CL, Whiteneck GG, Jha A, DeVivo MJ, Hammond FM, Hart DM. Mortality over four decades after traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: A retrospective cohort study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2009; 90: 1506–1513
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ventura T, Harrison-Felix C, Carlson N, Diguiseppi C, Gabella B, Brown A, Devivo M, Whiteneck G. Mortality after discharge from acute care hospitalization with traumatic brain injury: A population-based study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2010; 91: 20–29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison-Felix C, Whiteneck G, DeVivo M, Hammond FM, Jha A. Mortality following rehabilitation in the Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems of Care. NeuroRehabilitation 2004; 19: 45–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selassie AW, McCarthy ML, Ferguson PL, Tian J, Langlois JA. Risk of posthospitalization mortality among persons with traumatic brain injury, South Carolina 1999–2001. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2005; 20: 257–269
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baguley IJ, Nott MT, Slewa-Younan S. Long-term mortality trends in functionally-dependent adults following severe traumatic-brain injury. Brain Injury 2008; 22: 919–925
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rish BL, Dillon JD, Weiss GH. Mortality following penetrating craniocerebral injuries. An analysis of the deaths in the Vietnam Head Injury Registry population. Journal of Neurosurgery 1983; 59: 775–780
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyle CA, et al. Postservice mortality among Vietnam veterans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Health PHS. Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA 1987
   Google Scholar
• Zafonte RD, Hammond FM, Mann NR, Wood DL, Black KL, Millis SR. Relationship between Glasgow coma scale and functional outcome. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1996; 75: 364–369
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colantonio A, Escobar MD, Chipman M, McLellan B, Austin PC, Mirabella G, Ratcliff G. Predictors of postacute mortality following traumatic brain injury in a seriously injured population. Journal of Trauma 2008; 64: 876–882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keenan SP, Busche KD, Chen LM, McCarthy L, Inman KJ, Sibbald WJ. A retrospective review of a large cohort of patients undergoing the process of withholding or withdrawal of life support. Critical Care Medicine 1997; 25: 1324–1331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selassie AW, Zaloshnja E, Langlois JA, Miller T, Jones P, Steiner C. Incidence of long-term disability following traumatic brain injury hospitalization, United States, (2003). Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2008; 23: 123–131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaloshnja E, Miller T, Langlois JA, Selassie AW. Prevalence of long-term disability from traumatic brain injury in the civilian population of the United States, (2005). Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2008; 23: 394–400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• deGuise E, LeBlanc J, Feyz M, Meyer K, Duplantie J, Thomas H, Abouassaly M, Champoux MC, Couturier C, Lin H, et al. Long-term outcome after severe traumatic brain injury: The McGill interdisciplinary prospective study. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2008; 23: 294–303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doig E, Fleming J, Tooth L. Patterns of community integration 2–5 years post-discharge from brain injury rehabilitation. Brain Injury 2001; 15: 747–762
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweeney JK, Smutok MA. Vietnam head injury study. Preliminary analysis of the functional and anatomical sequelae of penetrating head trauma. Physical Therapy 1983; 63: 2018–2025
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jennett B, Snoek J, Bond MR, Brooks N. Disability after severe head injury: Observations on the use of the Glasgow Outcome Scale. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1981; 44: 285–293
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rappaport M, Hall KM, Hopkins K, Belleza T, Cope DN. Disability rating scale for severe head trauma: Coma to community. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1982; 63: 118–123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammond FM, Grattan KD, Sasser H, Corrigan JD, Rosenthal M, Bushnik T, Shull W. Five years after traumatic brain injury: A study of individual outcomes and predictors of change in function. NeuroRehabilitation 2004; 19: 25–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagen C, Malkmus D, Durham P, Levels of cognitive functioning. Downey, CA; 1972
   Google Scholar
• Tate RL, Pfaff A, Veerabangsa A, Hodgkinson AE. Measuring psychosocial recovery after brain injury: Change versus competency. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2004; 85: 538–545
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keith RA, Granger CV, Hamilton BB, Sherwin FS. The functional independence measure: A new tool for rehabilitation. Advances in Clinical Rehabilitation 1987; 1: 6–18
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hall K, Cope DN, Rappaport M. Glasgow Outcome Scale and Disability Rating Scale: Comparative usefulness in following recovery in traumatic head injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1985; 66: 35–37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming JM, Maas F. Prognosis of rehabilitation outcome in head injury using the Disability Rating Scale. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1994; 75: 156–163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton BB, Laughlin JA, Fiedler RC, Granger CV. Interrater reliability of the 7-level functional independence measure (FIM). Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 1994; 26: 115–119
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilson JT, Slieker FJ, Legrand V, Murray G, Stocchetti N, Maas AI. Observer variation in the assessment of outcome in traumatic brain injury: Experience from a multicenter, international randomized clinical trial. Neurosurgery 2007; 61: 123–128, discussion 128–129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy F, Gonzalez P, Dang C, Fleming A, Sterling-Scott R. The Glasgow Coma Scale and prognosis in gunshot wounds to the brain. Journla of Trauma 1993; 35: 75–77
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foreman BP, Caesar RR, Parks J, Madden C, Gentilello LM, Shafi S, Carlile MC, Harper CR, Diaz-Arrastia RR. Usefulness of the abbreviated injury score and the injury severity score in comparison to the Glasgow Coma Scale in predicting outcome after traumatic brain injury. Journal of Trauma 2007; 62: 946–950
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmarou A, Lu J, Butcher I, McHugh GS, Murray GD, Steyerberg EW, Mushkudiani NA, Choi S, Maas AI. Prognostic value of the Glasgow Coma Scale and pupil reactivity in traumatic brain injury assessed pre-hospital and on enrollment: An IMPACT analysis. Journal of Neurotrauma 2007; 24: 270–280
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stambrook M, Moore AD, Lubusko AA, Peters LC, Blumenschein S. Alternatives to the Glasgow Coma Scale as a quality of life predictor following traumatic brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 1993; 8: 95–103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowen TD, Meythaler JM, DeVivo MJ, Ivie CS, 3rd, Lebow J, Novack TA. Influence of early variables in traumatic brain injury on functional independence measure scores and rehabilitation length of stay and charges. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1995; 76: 797–803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zafonte RD, Wood DL, Harrison-Felix CL, Millis SR, Valena NV. Severe penetrating head injury: A study of outcomes. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2001; 82: 306–310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright DW, Kellermann AL, Hertzberg VS, Clark PL, Frankel M, Goldstein FC, Salomone JP, Dent LL, Harris OA, Ander DS, et al. ProTECT: A randomized clinical trial of progesterone for acute traumatic brain injury. Annals of Emergency Medicine 2007; 49: 391–402, 402 e1–2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rockswold SB, Rockswold GL, Zaun DA, Zhang X, Cerra CE, Bergman TA, Liu J. A prospective, randomized clinical trial to compare the effect of hyperbaric to normobaric hyperoxia on cerebral metabolism, intracranial pressure, and oxygen toxicity in severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurosurg 2010; 112: 1080–1094
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf AL, Levi L, Marmarou A, Ward JD, Muizelaar PJ, Choi S, Young H, Rigamonti D, Robinson WL. Effect of THAM upon outcome in severe head injury: A randomized prospective clinical trial. Journal of Neurosurgery 1993; 78: 54–59
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knoller N, Levi L, Shoshan I, Reichenthal E, Razon N, Rappaport ZH, Biegon A. Dexanabinol (HU-211) in the treatment of severe closed head injury: A randomized, placebo-controlled, phase II clinical trial. Critical Care Medicine 2002; 30: 548–554
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acosta-Escribano J, Fernandez-Vivas M, Grau Carmona T, Caturla-Such J, Garcia-Martinez M, Menendez-Mainer A, Solera-Suarez M, Sanchez-Paya J. Gastric versus transpyloric feeding in severe traumatic brain injury: A prospective, randomized trial. Intensive Care Medicine 2010; 36: 1532–1539
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cooper DJ, Myles PS, McDermott FT, Murray LJ, Laidlaw J, Cooper G, Tremayne AB, Bernard SS, Ponsford J. Prehospital hypertonic saline resuscitation of patients with hypotension and severe traumatic brain injury: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 2004; 291: 1350–1357
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coester A, Neumann CR, Schmidt MI. Intensive insulin therapy in severe traumatic brain injury: A randomized trial. Journal of Trauma 2010; 68: 904–911
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bilotta F, Caramia R, Cernak I, Paoloni FP, Doronzio A, Cuzzone V, Santoro A, Rosa G. Intensive insulin therapy after severe traumatic brain injury: A randomized clinical trial. Neurocritical Care 2008; 9: 159–166
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clifton GL, Drever P, Valadka A, Zygun D, Okonkwo D. Multicenter trial of early hypothermia in severe brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma 2009; 26: 393–397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor SJ, Fettes SB, Jewkes C, Nelson RJ. Prospective, randomized, controlled trial to determine the effect of early enhanced enteral nutrition on clinical outcome in mechanically ventilated patients suffering head injury. Critical Care Medicine 1999; 27: 2525–2531
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• A multicenter trial of the efficacy of nimodipine on outcome after severe head injury. The European Study Group on nimodipine in severe head injury. Journal of Neurosurgery (1994);80:797–804.
   Google Scholar
• Meythaler JM, Brunner RC, Johnson A, Novack TA. Amantadine to improve neurorecovery in traumatic brain injury-associated diffuse axonal injury: A pilot double-blind randomized trial. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2002; 17: 300–313
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bullock MR, Chestnut RM, Clifton GL, Ghajar J, Marion DW, Narayan RK, Newell DW, Pitts LH, Rosner MJ, Walters BC, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic head injury. Journal of Neurotrauma 2000; 17: 451–627
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bullock MR, Povlishock JT, Arabi YM, Haddad S, Tamim HM, Al-Dawood A, Al-Qahtani S, Ferayan A, Al-Abdulmughni I, Al-Oweis J, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma 2007; 24(Suppl 1)S1–S106
   Google Scholar
• Guidelines for the management of penetrating brain injuries. Pruitt BA, editor: Journal of Trauma; 2001. p S1–86
   Google Scholar
• Maas AI, Dearden M, Teasdale GM, Braakman R, Cohadon F, Iannotti F, Karimi A, Lapierre F, Murray G, Ohman J, et al. EBIC-guidelines for management of severe head injury in adults. European Brain Injury Consortium. Acta Neurochirurgica (Wien) 1997; 139: 286–294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar