1,611
Views
28
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

A review of the neuroprotective role of vitamin D in traumatic brain injury with implications for supplementation post-concussion

&
Pages 960-968 | Received 29 Aug 2015, Accepted 23 Jan 2016, Published online: 16 May 2016

References

  • Broglio SP, Collins MW, Williams RM, Mucha A, Kontos AP. Current and emerging rehabilitation for concussion: a review of the evidence. Clinical Sports Medicine 2015;34:213–231.
  • Harmon KG, Drezner JA, Gammons M, Guskiewicz KM, Halstead M, Herring SA, Kutcher JS, Pana A, Putukian M, Roberts WO. American Medical Society for Sports Medicine position statement: concussion in sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2013;47:15–26.
  • McCrory P, Meeuwisse WH, Aubry M, Cantu B, Dvorak J, Echemendia RJ, Engebretsen L, Johnston K, Kutcher JS, Raftery M, Sills A, Benson BW, Davis GA, Ellenbogen RG, Guskiewicz K, Herring SA, Iverson GL, Jordan BD, Kissick J, McCrea M, McIntosh AS, Maddocks D, Makdissi M, Purcell L, Putukian M, Schneider K, Tator CH, Turner M. Consensus statement on concussion in sport: the 4th International Conference on Concussion in Sport held in Zurich, November 2012. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2013;47:250–258.
  • Bistrian BR, Askew W, Erdman JW Jr, Oria MP. Nutrition and traumatic brain injury: a perspective from the Institute of Medicine report. JPEN Journal of Parenteral & Enteral Nutrition 2011;35:556–559.
  • Cook AM, Peppard A, Magnuson B. Nutrition considerations in traumatic brain injury. Nutrition in Clinical Practice 2008;23:608–620.
  • Scrimgeour AG, Condlin ML. Nutritional treatment for traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma 2014;31:989–999.
  • Aminmansour B, Nikbakht H, Ghorbani A, Rezvani M, Rahmani P, Torkashvand M, Nourian M, Moradi M. Comparison of the administration of progesterone versus progesterone and vitamin D in improvement of outcomes in patients with traumatic brain injury: a randomized clinical trial with placebo group. Advanced Biomedical Research 2012;1:1–5.
  • Cekic M, Cutler SM, VanLandingham JW, Stein DG. Vitamin D deficiency reduces the benefits of progesterone treatment after brain injury in aged rats. Neurobiology of Aging 2011;32:864–874.
  • Cekic M, Sayeed I, Stein DG. Combination treatment with progesterone and vitamin D hormone may be more effective than monotherapy for nervous system injury and disease. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 2009;30:158–172.
  • Chabas JF, Alluin O, Rao G, Garcia S, Lavaut MN, Risso JJ, Legre R, Magalon G, Khrestchatisky M, Marqueste T, Decherchi P, Feron F. Vitamin D2 potentiates axon regeneration. Journal of Neurotrauma 2008;25:1247–1256.
  • Chen KB, Lin AM, Chiu TH. Systemic vitamin D3 attenuated oxidative injuries in the locus coeruleus of rat brain. Anals of the New York Acadof Sciences 2003;993:313–324; discussion 345–319.
  • Garcion E, Sindji L, Nataf S, Brachet P, Darcy F, Montero-Menei CN. Treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in rat by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 leads to early effects within the central nervous system. Acta Neuropathologica 2003;105:438–448.
  • Hua F, Reiss JI, Tang H, Wang J, Fowler X, Sayeed I, Stein DG. Progesterone and low-dose vitamin D hormone treatment enhances sparing of memory following traumatic brain injury. Hormones & Behavior 2012;61:642–651.
  • Lin AM, Fan SF, Yang DM, Hsu LL, Yang CH. Zinc-induced apoptosis in substantia nigra of rat brain: neuroprotection by vitamin D3. Free Radical Biology & Medicine 2003;34:1416-–1425.
  • Oermann E, Bidmon HJ, Witte OW, Zilles K. Effects of 1alpha,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the expression of HO-1 and GFAP in glial cells of the photothrombotically lesioned cerebral cortex. Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy 2004;28:225–238.
  • Tang H, Hua F, Wang J, Sayeed I, Wang X, Chen Z, Yousuf S, Atif F, Stein DG. Progesterone and vitamin D: Improvement after traumatic brain injury in middle-aged rats. Hormones & Behavior 2013;64:527–538.
  • Tang H, Hua F, Wang J, Yousuf S, Atif F, Sayeed I, Stein DG. Progesterone and vitamin D combination therapy modulates inflammatory response after traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury 2015;29:1165–1174.
  • Wang JY, Wu JN, Cherng TL, Hoffer BJ, Chen HH, Borlongan CV, Wang Y. Vitamin D(3) attenuates 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neurotoxicity in rats. Brain Research 2001;904:67–75.
  • Wang Y, Chiang YH, Su TP, Hayashi T, Morales M, Hoffer BJ, Lin SZ. Vitamin D(3) attenuates cortical infarction induced by middle cerebral arterial ligation in rats. Neuropharmacology 2000;39:873–880.
  • Balden R, Selvamani A, Sohrabji F. Vitamin D deficiency exacerbates experimental stroke injury and dysregulates ischemia-induced inflammation in adult rats. Endocrinology 2012;153:2420–2435.
  • Mealy MA, Newsome S, Greenberg BM, Wingerchuk D, Calabresi P, Levy M. Low serum vitamin D levels and recurrent inflammatory spinal cord disease. Archives of Neurology 2012;69:352–356.
  • Michos ED, Melamed ML. Vitamin D and cardiovascular disease risk. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care 2008;11:7–12.
  • Skolnick BE, Maas AI, Narayan RK, van der Hoop RG, MacAllister T, Ward JD, Nelson NR, Stocchetti N, Investigators ST. A clinical trial of progesterone for severe traumatic brain injury. New Englan Journal of Medicine 2014;371:2467–2476.
  • Wright DW, Kellermann AL, Hertzberg VS, Clark PL, Frankel M, Goldstein FC, Salomone JP, Dent LL, Harris OA, Ander DS, Lowery DW, Patel MM, Denson DD, Gordon AB, Wald MM, Gupta S, Hoffman SW, Stein DG. ProTECT: a randomized clinical trial of progesterone for acute traumatic brain injury. Annals of Emergency Medicine 2007;49:391–402, 402 e391–392.
  • Xiao G, Wei J, Yan W, Wang W, Lu Z. Improved outcomes from the administration of progesterone for patients with acute severe traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled trial. Critical Care 2008;12:R61.
  • Wright DW, Yeatts SD, Silbergleit R, Palesch YY, Hertzberg VS, Frankel M, Goldstein FC, Caveney AF, Howlett-Smith H, Bengelink EM, Manley GT, Merck LH, Janis LS, Barsan WG, Investigators N. Very early administration of progesterone for acute traumatic brain injury. New England Journal of Medicine 2014;371:2457–2466.
  • Howard RB, Sayeed I, Stein D. Suboptimal dosing parameters as possible factors in the negative Phase III clinical trials of progesterone in TBI. Journal of Neurotrauma 2015. DOI: 10.1089/neu.2015.4179.
  • Deluca GC, Kimball SM, Kolasinski J, Ramagopalan SV, Ebers GC. The role of Vitamin D in nervous system health and disease. Neuropathology & Applied Neurobiology 2013; 39:458–484.
  • Hayes CE, Nashold FE, Spach KM, Pedersen LB. The immunological functions of the vitamin D endocrine system. Cellular & Molecular Biology (Noisy-le-grand) 2003;49:277–300.
  • Pfeifer M, Begerow B, Minne HW. Vitamin D and muscle function. Osteoporosis International 2002;13:187–194.
  • Banerjee P, Chatterjee M. Antiproliferative role of vitamin D and its analogs–a brief overview. Molecular & Cellular Biochemistry 2003;253:247–254.
  • Garcion E, Wion-Barbot N, Montero-Menei CN, Berger F, Wion D. New clues about vitamin D functions in the nervous system. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism 2002;13:100–105.
  • Armas LA, Hollis BW, Heaney RP. Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2004;89:5387–5391.
  • Holick MF, Smith E, Pincus S. Skin as the site of vitamin D synthesis and target tissue for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Use of calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) for treatment of psoriasis. Archives of Dermatology 1987;123:1677–1683.
  • Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. New England Journal of Medicine 2007;357:266–281.
  • Brown AJ, Dusso A, Slatopolsky E. Vitamin D. American Journal of Physiology 1999;277:F157–175.
  • Segaert S, Bouillon R. Vitamin D and regulation of gene expression. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care 1998;1:347–354.
  • Stumpf WE, Sar M, Clark SA, DeLuca HF. Brain target sites for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Science 1982;215:1403–1405.
  • Stumpf WE, Sar M, Reid FA, Tanaka Y, DeLuca HF. Target cells for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in intestinal tract, stomach, kidney, skin, pituitary, and parathyroid. Science 1979;206:1188–1190.
  • Balabanova S, Richter HP, Antoniadis G, Homoki J, Kremmer N, Hanle J, Teller WM. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D, 24, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in human cerebrospinal fluid. Klinische Wochenschrift 1984;62:1086–1090.
  • Gascon-Barre M, Huet PM. Apparent [3H]1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 uptake by canine and rodent brain. American Journal of Physiology 1983;244:E266–271.
  • Pardridge WM, Sakiyama R, Coty WA. Restricted transport of vitamin D and A derivatives through the rat blood-brain barrier. Journal of Neurochemistry 1985;44:1138–1141.
  • Eyles DW, Smith S, Kinobe R, Hewison M, McGrath JJ. Distribution of the vitamin D receptor and 1 alpha-hydroxylase in human brain. Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy 2005;29:21–30.
  • Fu GK, Lin D, Zhang MY, Bikle DD, Shackleton CH, Miller WL, Portale AA. Cloning of human 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1 alpha-hydroxylase and mutations causing vitamin D-dependent rickets type 1. Molecular Endocrinology 1997;11:1961–1970.
  • Zehnder D, Bland R, Williams MC, McNinch RW, Howie AJ, Stewart PM, Hewison M. Extrarenal expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin d(3)-1 alpha-hydroxylase. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolsim 2001;86:888–894.
  • Spach KM, Hayes CE. Vitamin D3 confers protection from autoimmune encephalomyelitis only in female mice. Journal of Immunology 2005;175:4119–4126.
  • Holick MF. Vitamin D status: measurement, interpretation, and clinical application. Annals of Epidemiology 2009;19:73–78.
  • Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Dietrich T, Dawson-Hughes B. Estimation of optimal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for multiple health outcomes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2006;84:18–28.
  • Dawson-Hughes B, Heaney RP, Holick MF, Lips P, Meunier PJ, Vieth R. Estimates of optimal vitamin D status. Osteoporos International 2005;16:713–716.
  • Vieth R, Bischoff-Ferrari H, Boucher BJ, Dawson-Hughes B, Garland CF, Heaney RP, Holick MF, Hollis BW, Lamberg-Allardt C, McGrath JJ, Norman AW, Scragg R, Whiting SJ, Willett WC, Zittermann A. The urgent need to recommend an intake of vitamin D that is effective. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;85:649–650.
  • Hanley DA, Cranney A, Jones G, Whiting SJ, Leslie WD, Guidelines Committee of the Scientific Advisory Council of Osteoporosis C. Vitamin D in adult health and disease: a review and guideline statement from Osteoporosis Canada (summary). Canadian Medical Association Journal 2010;182:1315–1319.
  • Close GL, Russell J, Cobley JN, Owens DJ, Wilson G, Gregson W, Fraser WD, Morton JP. Assessment of vitamin D concentration in non-supplemented professional athletes and healthy adults during the winter months in the UK: implications for skeletal muscle function. Journal of Sports Sciences 2013;31:344–353.
  • Farrokhyar F, Tabasinejad R, Dao D, Peterson D, Ayeni OR, Hadioonzadeh R, Bhandari M. Prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy in athletes: a systematic-review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine 2015;45:365–378.
  • Magee PJ, Pourshahidi LK, Wallace JM, Cleary J, Conway J, Harney E, Madigan SM. Vitamin d status and supplementation in elite irish athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition Exercise & Metabolism 2013;23:441–448.
  • Maroon JC, Mathyssek CM, Bost JW, Amos A, Winkelman R, Yates AP, Duca MA, Norwig JA. Vitamin D profile in National Football League players. American Journal of Sports Medicine 2015;43:1241–1245.
  • Morton JP, Iqbal Z, Drust B, Burgess D, Close GL, Brukner PD. Seasonal variation in vitamin D status in professional soccer players of the English Premier League. Applied Physiology, Nutrition & Metabolism 2012;37:798–802.
  • Constantini NW, Arieli R, Chodick G, Dubnov-Raz G. High prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in athletes and dancers. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine 2010;20:368–371.
  • Lappe J, Cullen D, Haynatzki G, Recker R, Ahlf R, Thompson K. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation decreases incidence of stress fractures in female navy recruits. Journal of Bone Mineral Research 2008;23:741–749.
  • Neal S, Sykes J, Rigby M, Hess B. A review and clinical summary of vitamin D in regard to bone health and athletic performance. Physical Sportsmedicine 2015;43:161–168.
  • Ruohola JP, Laaksi I, Ylikomi T, Haataja R, Mattila VM, Sahi T, Tuohimaa P, Pihlajamaki H. Association between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and bone stress fractures in Finnish young men. Journal of Bone Mineral Research 2006;21:1483–1488.
  • Sonneville KR, Gordon CM, Kocher MS, Pierce LM, Ramappa A, Field AE. Vitamin D, calcium, and dairy intakes and stress fractures among female adolescents. Archive of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine 2012;166:595–600.
  • Larson-Meyer E. Vitamin D supplementation in athletes. Nestle Nutrition Institute Workshop Series 2013;75:109–121.
  • Ogan D, Pritchett K. Vitamin D and the athlete: risks, recommendations, and benefits. Nutrients 2013;5:1856–1868.
  • von Hurst PR, Beck KL. Vitamin D and skeletal muscle function in athletes. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care 2014;17:539–545.
  • Finkel J. Dr. L. Ray Matthews unleashes the power of Vitamin D. Secondary Dr. L. Ray Matthews unleashes the power of Vitamin D. [Internet]. Accessed 27 March 2016. Available from: http://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2013/10/dr-l-ray-matthews-unleashes-the-power-of-vitamin-d/page-01.
  • Hanley DA, Cranney A, Jones G, Whiting SJ, Leslie WD, Cole DE, Atkinson SA, Josse RG, Feldman S, Kline GA, Rosen C, Guidelines Committee of the Scientific Advisory Council of Osteoporosis C. Vitamin D in adult health and disease: a review and guideline statement from Osteoporosis Canada. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2010;182:E610–618.
  • Manson JE, Bassuk SS. Vitamin D research and clinical practice: at a crossroads. Journal of the American Medical Association 2015;313:1311–1312.
  • Meyer HE, Holvik K, Lips P. Should vitamin D supplements be recommended to prevent chronic diseases? British Medical Journal 2015;350:h321.
  • Working Group of the A, New Zealand B, Mineral S, Endocrine Society of A, Osteoporosis A. Vitamin D and adult bone health in Australia and New Zealand: a position statement. Medical Journal of Australia 2005;182:281–285.
  • Mozos I, Marginean O. Links between Vitamin D Deficiency and Cardiovascular Diseases. Biomedical Research International 2015;2015:1–12.
  • Pittas AG, Lau J, Hu FB, Dawson-Hughes B. The role of vitamin D and calcium in type 2 diabetes. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2007;92:2017–2029.
  • Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED, Lipkin M, Newmark H, Mohr SB, Holick MF. The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. American Journal of Public Health 2006;96:252–261.
  • Munger KL, Levin LI, Hollis BW, Howard NS, Ascherio A. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of multiple sclerosis. Journal of the American Medical Association 2006;296:2832–2838.
  • Liu PT, Stenger S, Li H, Wenzel L, Tan BH, Krutzik SR, Ochoa MT, Schauber J, Wu K, Meinken C, Kamen DL, Wagner M, Bals R, Steinmeyer A, Zugel U, Gallo RL, Eisenberg D, Hewison M, Hollis BW, Adams JS, Bloom BR, Modlin RL. Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response. Science 2006;311:1770–1773.
  • Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition. Secondary. [Internet]. Accessed 27 March 2016. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/groups/scientific-advisory-committee-on-nutrition.
  • Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition. Consultation on draft SACN Vitamin D and Health report. Secondary Consultation on draft SACN Vitamin D and Health report. [Internet]. Accessed 27 March 2016. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/consultation-on-draft-sacn-vitamin-d-and-health-report.
  • Holick MF. The vitamin D epidemic and its health consequences. Journal of Nutrition 2005;135:2739S–2748S.
  • Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gordon CM, Hanley DA, Heaney RP, Murad MH, Weaver CM, Endocrine S. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2011;96:1911–1930.
  • Webb AR. Who, what, where and when-influences on cutaneous vitamin D synthesis. Progress in Biophysics & Molecular Biology 2006;92:17–25.
  • Chen TC, Chimeh F, Lu Z, Mathieu J, Person KS, Zhang A, Kohn N, Martinello S, Berkowitz R, Holick MF. Factors that influence the cutaneous synthesis and dietary sources of vitamin D. Archives of Biochemotry & Biophysics 2007;460:213–217.
  • Hathcock JN, Shao A, Vieth R, Heaney R. Risk assessment for vitamin D. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2007;85:6–18.
  • Heaney RP, Davies KM, Chen TC, Holick MF, Barger-Lux MJ. Human serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol response to extended oral dosing with cholecalciferol. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003;77:204–210.
  • Kalueff AV, Eremin KO, Tuohimaa P. Mechanisms of neuroprotective action of vitamin D(3). Biochemistry (Moscow) 2004;69:738–741.
  • Imazeki I, Matsuzaki J, Tsuji K, Nishimura T. Immunomodulating effect of vitamin D3 derivatives on type-1 cellular immunity. Biomedical Research 2006;27:1–9.
  • Mahon BD, Wittke A, Weaver V, Cantorna MT. The targets of vitamin D depend on the differentiation and activation status of CD4 positive T cells. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 2003;89:922–932.
  • Matsuzaki J, Tsuji T, Imazeki I, Ikeda H, Nishimura T. Immunosteroid as a regulator for Th1/Th2 balance: its possible role in autoimmune diseases. Autoimmunity 2005;38:369–375.
  • Mattner F, Smiroldo S, Galbiati F, Muller M, Di Lucia P, Poliani PL, Martino G, Panina-Bordignon P, Adorini L. Inhibition of Th1 development and treatment of chronic-relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by a non-hypercalcemic analogue of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). European Journal of Immunology 2000;30:498–508.
  • Topilski I, Flaishon L, Naveh Y, Harmelin A, Levo Y, Shachar I. The anti-inflammatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on Th2 cells in vivo are due in part to the control of integrin-mediated T lymphocyte homing. European Journal of Immunology 2004;34:1068–1076.
  • Brewer LD, Thibault V, Chen KC, Langub MC, Landfield PW, Porter NM. Vitamin D hormone confers neuroprotection in parallel with downregulation of L-type calcium channel expression in hippocampal neurons. Journal of Neuroscience 2001;21:98–108.
  • de Viragh PA, Haglid KG, Celio MR. Parvalbumin increases in the caudate putamen of rats with vitamin D hypervitaminosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 1989;86:3887–3890.
  • Kutuzova GD, Deluca HF. Gene expression profiles in rat intestine identify pathways for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) stimulated calcium absorption and clarify its immunomodulatory properties. Archives of Biochemitry & Biophysics 2004;432:152–166.
  • Xu Y, Zhang W, Klaus J, Young J, Koerner I, Sheldahl LC, Hurn PD, Martinez-Murillo F, Alkayed NJ. Role of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript in estradiol-mediated neuroprotection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 2006;103:14489–14494.
  • Garcion E, Sindji L, Leblondel G, Brachet P, Darcy F. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulates the synthesis of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and glutathione levels in rat primary astrocytes. Journal of Neurochemistry 1999;73:859–866.
  • Shinpo K, Kikuchi S, Sasaki H, Moriwaka F, Tashiro K. Effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) on cultured mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons to the combined toxicity caused by L-buthionine sulfoximine and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridine. Journal of Neuroscience Research 2000;62:374–382.
  • Losem-Heinrichs E, Gorg B, Redecker C, Schleicher A, Witte OW, Zilles K, Bidmon HJ. 1alpha,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3 in combination with 17beta-estradiol lowers the cortical expression of heat shock protein-27 following experimentally induced focal cortical ischemia in rats. Archives of Biochemistry & Biophysics 2005;439:70–79.
  • Samina Riaz S, Tomlinson DR. Pharmacological modulation of nerve growth factor synthesis: a mechanistic comparison of vitamin D receptor and beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists. Brain Research Molecular Brain Research 2000;85:179–188.
  • Daneshvar DH, Nowinski CJ, McKee AC, Cantu RC. The epidemiology of sport-related concussion. Clinical Sports Medicine 2011;30:1–17, vii.
  • Dick R, Ferrara MS, Agel J, Courson R, Marshall SW, Hanley MJ, Reifsteck F. Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate men’s football injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 1988-1989 through 2003-2004. Journal of Athletic Training 2007;42:221–233.
  • Lawrence DW, Hutchison MG, Comper P. Descriptive epidemiology of musculoskeletal injuries and concussions in the National Football League, 2012-2014. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 2015;3:1–7.
  • Lincoln AE, Caswell SV, Almquist JL, Dunn RE, Norris JB, Hinton RY. Trends in concussion incidence in high school sports: a prospective 11-year study. American Journal of Sports Medicine 2011;39:958–963.
  • Powell JW, Schootman M. A multivariate risk analysis of selected playing surfaces in the National Football League: 1980 to 1989. An epidemiologic study of knee injuries. American Journal of Sports Medicine 1992;20:686–694.
  • Jeter CB, Hergenroeder GW, Hylin MJ, Redell JB, Moore AN, Dash PK. Biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of mild traumatic brain injury/concussion. Journal of Neurotrauma 2013;30:657–670.
  • Durup D, Jorgensen HL, Christensen J, Schwarz P, Heegaard AM, Lind B. A reverse J-shaped association of all-cause mortality with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D in general practice: the CopD study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2012;97:2644–2652.
  • Durup D, Jorgensen HL, Christensen J, Tjonneland A, Olsen A, Halkjaer J, Lind B, Heegaard AM, Schwarz P. A reverse J-ahaped association between Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and cardiovascular disease mortality: The CopD Study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2015;100:2339–2346.
  • Jorde R, Grimnes G. Vitamin D and health: the need for more randomized controlled trials. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry & Molecular Biology 2015;148:269–274.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.