2,831
Views
35
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review article/Acta Oncologica Young Investigator

Review on adjuvant chemotherapy for rectal cancer – why do treatment guidelines differ so much?

, , , , &
Pages 437-446 | Received 29 Jun 2014, Accepted 26 Nov 2014, Published online: 22 Mar 2015

References

  • Ferlay J, Autier P, Boniol M, Heanue M, Colombet M, Boyle P. Estimates of the cancer incidence and mortality in Europe in 2006. Ann Oncol 2007;18:581–92.
  • Benson AB, Bekaii-Saab T, Chan E, Chen Y, Choti MA, Cooper HS, et al. Rectal cancer. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2012;10:1528–64.
  • Maringe C, Walters S, Rachet B, Butler J, Fields T, Finan P, et al. Stage at diagnosis and colorectal cancer survival in six high-income countries: A population-based study of patients diagnosed during 2000–2007. Acta Oncol 2013;52:919–32.
  • Quah H-M, Chou JF, Gonen M, Shia J, Schrag D, Landmann RG, et al. Identification of patients with high-risk stage II colon cancer for adjuvant therapy. Dis Colon Rectum 2008;51:503–7.
  • Heald RJ. The “Holy Plane” of rectal surgery. J R Soc Med 1988;81:503–8.
  • Heald RJ, Moran B, Ryall RD, Sexton R, MacFarlane JK. Rectal cancer: The Basingstoke experience of total mesorectal excision, 1978–1997. Arch Surg 1998;133:894–9.
  • Kapiteijn E, Marijnen CAM, Nagtegaal ID, Putter H, Steup WH, Wiggers T, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2001;345:638–46.
  • Sebag-Montefiore DJ, Stephens RJ, Steele R, Monson JRT, Grieve R, Khanna S, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy versus selective postoperative chemoradiotherapy in patients with rectal cancer (MRC CR07 and NCIC-CTG C016): A multicentre, randomised trial. Lancet 2009;373:811–20.
  • Sauer R, Becker H, Hohenberger W, Rödel C, Wittekind C, Fietkau R, et al. Preoperative versus postoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2004;351: 1731–40.
  • Augestad KM, Lindsetmo R-O, Stulberg J, Reynolds H, Senagore A, Champagne B, et al. International preoperative rectal cancer management: Staging, neoadjuvant treatment, and impact of multidisciplinary teams. World J Surg 2010; 34:2689–700.
  • Socialstyrelsen. Öppna jämförelser av cancersjukvårdens kvalitet och effektivitet Jämförelser mellan landsting 2011. Available from: http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/publikationer2011/2011-8-1 . Cited on 28th June, 2014.
  • Wibe A, Carlsen E, Dahl O, Tveit KM, Weedon-Fekjaer H, Hestvik UE, et al. Nationwide quality assurance of rectal cancer treatment. Colorectal Dis 2006;8:224–9.
  • MERCURY Study Group. Extramural depth of tumor invasion at thin-section MR in patients with rectal cancer: Results of the MERCURY study. Radiology 2007;243: 132–9.
  • Taylor FGM, Quirke P, Heald RJ, Moran BJ, Blomqvist L, Swift IR, et al. Preoperative magnetic resonance imaging assessment of circumferential resection margin predicts disease-free survival and local recurrence: 5-year follow-up results of the MERCURY study. J Clin Oncol 2014;32: 34–43.
  • Van Gijn W, Marijnen CAM, Nagtegaal ID, Kranenbarg EM-K, Putter H, Wiggers T, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer: 12-year follow-up of the multicentre, randomised controlled TME trial. Lancet Oncol 2011;12:575–82.
  • Sauer R, Liersch T, Merkel S, Fietkau R, Hohenberger W, Hess C, et al. Preoperative versus postoperative chemoradiotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer: Results of the German CAO/ARO/AIO-94 randomized phase III trial after a median follow-up of 11 years. J Clin Oncol 2012;30: 1926–33.
  • Bosset J-F, Calais G, Mineur L, Maingon P, Stojanovic-Rundic S, Bensadoun R-J, et al. Fluorouracil-based adjuvant chemotherapy after preoperative chemoradiotherapy in rectal cancer: Long-term results of the EORTC 22921 randomised study. Lancet Oncol 2014;15:184–90
  • Sargent DJ, Sobrero A, Grothey A, O’Connell MJ, Buyse M, André T, et al. Evidence for cure by adjuvant therapy in colon cancer: Observations based on individual patient data from 20,898 patients on 18 randomized trials. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:872–7.
  • André T, Boni C, Navarro M, Tabernero J, Hickish T, Topham C, et al. Improved overall survival with oxaliplatin, fluorouracil, and leucovorin as adjuvant treatment in stage II or III colon cancer in the MOSAIC trial. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:3109–16.
  • Yothers G, O’Connell MJ, Allegra CJ, Kuebler JP, Colangelo LH, Petrelli NJ, et al. Oxaliplatin as adjuvant therapy for colon cancer: Updated results of NSABP C-07 trial, including survival and subset analyses. J Clin Oncol 2011;29:3768–74.
  • Haller DG, Tabernero J, Maroun J, de Braud F, Price T, Van Cutsem E, et al. Capecitabine plus oxaliplatin compared with fluorouracil and folinic acid as adjuvant therapy for stage III colon cancer. J Clin Oncol 2011;29:1465–71.
  • Schmoll H-J, Van Cutsem E, Stein A, Valentini V, Glimelius B, Haustermans K, et al. ESMO consensus guidelines for management of patients with colon and rectal cancer. A personalized approach to clinical decision making. Ann Oncol 2012;23:2479–516.
  • Glimelius B, Tiret E, Cervantes A, Arnold D. Rectal cancer: ESMO clinical practice guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol 2013;24(Suppl 6):vi81–8.
  • NGICG. Nasjonalt handlingsprogram med retningslinjer for diagnostikk , behandling og oppfølging av kreft i tykktarm og endetarm. Available from: http://ngicg.no/handlingsprogram/nasjonale_handlingsprogrammer/content_1/filelist_ee59ae57-c583-41bb-8e91-ac712e639640/1395777852047/nasjonalt_handlingsprogram_for_tykk_og_endetarmskreft.pdf . Cited on 28th June, 2014.
  • Socialstyrelsen. Swedish Guidelines. 2014. Available from: http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/publikationer2014/2014-4-2/Sidor/default.aspx . Cited on 28th June, 2014.
  • Lepistö A, Osterlund P, Kouri M, Järvinen HJ. [Rectal cancer].Duodecim 2009;125:857–65.
  • DCCG. Adjuverende kemoterapi ved rectumcancer. Available from: http://dccg.dk/retningslinjer/20140418/2014_AdjKemoRectum.pdf Cited on 28th June, 2014.
  • Maurel J, Grávalos Castro C, Rivera Herrero F, Vera R, Gonzáles Flores E Sast. SEOM clinical guidelines for the adjuvant treatment of colorectal cancer2013. Clin Transl Oncol2013;15:991–5.
  • Tumoren L werkgroep GI. Dutch Guidelines: Adjuvante Chemotherapie Rectumcarcinoom. Available from: http://www.oncoline.nl/colorectaalcarcinoom . Cited on 28th June, 2014.
  • NICE. British guidelines: Colorectal cancer: The diagnosis and management of colorectal cancer. Available from: http://publications.nice.org.uk/colorectal-cancer-cg131/guidance# management-of-local-disease . Cited on 28th June, 2014.
  • Matsuda T, Yasutomi M, Kikuchi K, Kasai Y, Abe O, Kondo T, et al.[Cooperative study of surgical adjuvant chemotherapy for colorectal cancer (third report): five-year results.Cooperative Study Group of Surgical Adjuvant Chemotherapy for Colorectal Cancer in Japan].Gan To Kagaku Ryoho 1991;18:461–9.
  • Five-year results of a randomized controlled trial of adjuvant chemotherapy for curatively resected colorectal carcinoma. The Colorectal Cancer Chemotherapy Study Group of Japan. Jpn J Clin Oncol 1995;25:91–103.
  • Ito K, Yamaguchi A, Miura K, Kato T, Baba S, Matsumoto S, et al. Oral adjuvant chemotherapy with carmofur (HCFU) for colorectal cancer: Five-year follow-up. Tokai HCFU Study Group – third study on colorectal cancer. J Surg Oncol 1996;63:107–11.
  • Kodaira S. Postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy with mitomycin C and UFT for rectal cancer. Oncology (Williston Park) 1997;11:40–3.
  • Kato T, Ohashi Y, Nakazato H, Koike A, Saji S, Suzuki H, et al. Efficacy of oral UFT as adjuvant chemotherapy to curative resection of colorectal cancer: Multicenter prospective randomized trial. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2002;386:575–81.
  • Watanabe M, Nishida O, Kunii Y, Kodaira S, Takahashi T, Tominaga T, et al. Randomized controlled trial of the efficacy of adjuvant immunochemotherapy and adjuvant chemotherapy for colorectal cancer, using different combinations of the intracutaneous streptococcal preparation OK-432 and the oral pyrimidines 1-hexylcarbamoyl-5-flu. Int J Clin Oncol 2004;9:98–106.
  • Hamaguchi T, Shirao K, Moriya Y, Yoshida S, Kodaira S, Ohashi Y. Final results of randomized trials by the National Surgical Adjuvant Study of Colorectal Cancer (NSAS-CC). Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2011;67:587–96.
  • Bosset J-F, Collette L, Calais G, Mineur L, Maingon P, Radosevic-Jelic L, et al. Chemotherapy with preoperative radiotherapy in rectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2006;355: 1114–23.
  • Sainato A, Cernusco Luna Nunzia V, Valentini V, De Paoli A, Maurizi ER, Lupattelli M, et al. No benefit of adjuvant Fluorouracil Leucovorin chemotherapy after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy in locally advanced cancer of the rectum (LARC): Long term results of a randomized trial (I-CNR-RT). Radiother Oncol 2014;113:223–9.
  • Breugom AJ, van Gijn W, Mueller EW, Berglund A, van den Broek CB, Fokstuen T, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy for rectal cancer patients treated with preoperative (chemo)radiotherapy and total mesorectal excision: a Dutch Colorectal Cancer Group (DCCG) randomised phase III trial.Ann Oncol 2014 Dec 5. pii: mdu560. [Epub ahead of print].
  • Glynne-Jones R, Counsell N, Quirke P, Mortensen N, Maraveyas A, Meadows HM, et al. Chronicle: Results of a randomised phase III trial in locally advanced rectal cancer after neoadjuvant chemoradiation randomising postoperative adjuvant capecitabine plus oxaliplatin (Xelox) versus control. Ann Oncol 2014;25:1356–62.
  • Grage TB, Moss SE. Adjuvant chemotherapy in cancer of the colon and rectum: Demonstration of effectiveness of prolonged 5-FU chemotherapy in a prospectively controlled, randomized trial. Surg Clin North Am 1981;61:1321–9.
  • Hafström L, Domellof L, Rudenstam C-M. A randomized trial of oral 5-fluorouracil versus placebo as adjuvant therapy in colorectal cancer Dukes’ B and C: Results after 5 years observation time. Br J Surg 1985;72:138–41.
  • Fisher B, Wolmark N, Rockette H, Redmond C, Deutsch M, Wickerham DL, et al. Postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy or radiation therapy for rectal cancer: Results from NSABP protocol R-01. J Natl Cancer Inst 1988;80:21–9.
  • Thomas PR, Lindblad AS. Adjuvant postoperative radiotherapy and chemotherapy in rectal carcinoma: A review of the Gastrointestinal Tumor Study Group experience. Radiother Oncol 1988;13:245–52.
  • Hafström L, Domellöf L, Rudenstam CM, Norryd C, Bergman L, Nilsson T, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil, vincristine and CCNU for patients with Dukes’ C colorectal cancer. The Swedish Gastrointestinal Tumour Adjuvant Therapy Group. Br J Surg 1990;77:1345–8.
  • Krook JE, Moertel CG, Gunderson LL, Wieand HS, Collins RT, Beart RW, et al. Effective surgical adjuvant therapy for high-risk rectal carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1991;324: 709–15.
  • Kornek G, Depisch D, Salem G, Karalt M, Rohrbacher M, Scheithauer W. Combined locoregional and systemic adjuvant chemotherapy of stage II and III rectal carcinoma. Onkologie 1996;19:147–51.
  • Athanassiou E, Dafni U, Liaros A, Briassoulis E, Samantas E, Kosmidis P, et al. Postoperative radiation (RT) and concomitant bolus fluorouracil (FU) with or without additional chemotherapy (CT) as adjuvant treatment in patients with high risk rectal cancer. A randomized phase III study conducted by the Hellenic Cooperative Oncology G. Eur J Cancer 1999;35:S69–70. (Abstxr)
  • Cafiero F, Gipponi M, Lionetto R. Randomised clinical trial of adjuvant postoperative RT vs. sequential postoperative RT plus 5-FU and levamisole in patients with stage II-III resectable rectal cancer: A final report. J Surg Oncol 2003;83: 140–6.
  • Glimelius B, Dahl O, Cedermark B, Jakobsen A, Bentzen SM, Starkhammar H, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy in colorectal cancer: A joint analysis of randomised trials by the Nordic Gastrointestinal Tumour Adjuvant Therapy Group. Acta Oncol 2005;44:904–12.
  • Li RL. [Combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy for rectal cancer – a 423 cases report]. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi 1992;14:213–5.
  • Taal BG, van Tinteren H, Zoetmulder F. Adjuvant 5FU plus levamisole in colonic or rectal cancer: Improved survival in stage II and III. Br J Cancer 2001;85:1437–43.
  • Gray R, Barnwell J, McConkey C, Hills RK, Williams NS, Kerr DJ. Adjuvant chemotherapy versus observation in patients with colorectal cancer: A randomised study. Lancet 2007;370:2020–9.
  • Petersen SH, Harling H, Kirkeby LT, Wille-Jørgensen P, Mocellin S. Postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy in rectal cancer operated for cure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;3:CD004078.
  • Van Cutsem E, de Haas S, Kang Y-K, Ohtsu A, Tebbutt NC, Ming Xu J, et al. Bevacizumab in combination with chemotherapy as first-line therapy in advanced gastric cancer: A biomarker evaluation from the AVAGAST randomized phase III trial. J Clin Oncol 2012;30:2119–27.
  • Haller DG, Cassidy J, Clarke SJ, Cunningham D, Van Cutsem E, Hoff PM, et al. Potential regional differences for the tolerability profiles of fluoropyrimidines. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:2118–23.
  • Pettersson D, Cedermark B, Holm T, Radu C, Påhlman L, Glimelius B, et al. Interim analysis of the Stockholm III trial of preoperative radiotherapy regimens for rectal cancer. Br J Surg 2010;97:580–7.
  • Collette L, Calais G, Mineur L, Al E. Patients with R0 resection of T3-4 cancer after preoperative radio or radiochemotherapy: Does anybody benefit from postoperative LV/5-FU chemotherapy? Further results of EORTC trial 22921. Eur J Cancer 2005;3:170 (Abst).
  • Fietkau R, Klautke G. Adjuvant chemotherapy following neoadjuvant therapy of rectal cancer: The type of neoadjuvant therapy (chemoradiotherapy or radiotherapy) may be important for selection of patients. J Clin Oncol 2008;26: 507–8; author reply 508–9.
  • Collette L, Bosset J-F. In reply. J Clin Oncol 2008;26: 508–9.
  • Biagi JJ, Raphael MJ, Mackillop WJ, Kong W, King WD, Booth CM. Association between time to initiation of adjuvant chemotherapy and survival in colorectal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2011;305: 2335–42.
  • Glimelius B. Optimal time intervals between pre-operative radiotherapy or chemoradiotherapy and surgery in rectal cancer?Front Oncol 2014;4:50.
  • Nilsson PJ, van Etten B, Hospers GAP, Påhlman L, van de Velde CJH, Beets-Tan RGH, et al. Short-course radiotherapy followed by neo-adjuvant chemotherapy in locally advanced rectal cancer – the RAPIDO trial. BMC Cancer 2013;13:279.
  • Schrag D, Weiser MR, Goodman KA, Gonen M, Hollywood E, Cercek A, et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy without routine use of radiation therapy for patients with locally advanced rectal cancer: A pilot trial. J Clin Oncol 2014;32:513–8.
  • Haynes AB, You YN, Hu C-Y, Eng C, Kopetz ES, Rodriguez-Bigas MA, et al. Postoperative chemotherapy use after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer: Analysis of surveillance, epidemiology, and end results – Medicare data, 1998–2007. Cancer 2014;120:1162–70.
  • Collette L, Bosset J-F, den Dulk M, Nguyen F, Mineur L, Maingon P, et al. Patients with curative resection of cT3-4 rectal cancer after preoperative radiotherapy or radiochemotherapy: Does anybody benefit from adjuvant fluorouracil-based chemotherapy?A trial of the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer Radiation Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 2007;25:4379–86.
  • Janjan NA, Crane C, Feig BW, Cleary K, Dubrow R, Curley S, et al. Improved overall survival among responders to preoperative chemoradiation for locally advanced rectal cancer. Am J Clin Oncol 2001;24:107–12.
  • Capirci C, Valentini V, Cionini L, De Paoli A, Rodel C, Glynne-Jones R, et al. Prognostic value of pathologic complete response after neoadjuvant therapy in locally advanced rectal cancer: Long-term analysis of 566 ypCR patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008;72:99–107.
  • Huh JW, Kim HR. Postoperative chemotherapy after neoadjuvant chemoradiation and surgery for rectal cancer: Is it essential for patients with ypT0-2N0? J Surg Oncol 2009;100:387–91.
  • Das P, Skibber JM, Rodriguez-Bigas MA, Feig BW, Chang GJ, Hoff PM, et al. Clinical and pathologic predictors of locoregional recurrence, distant metastasis, and overall survival in patients treated with chemoradiation and mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Am J Clin Oncol 2006;29:219–24.
  • Tiselius C, Gunnarsson U, Smedh K, Glimelius B, Påhlman L. Patients with rectal cancer receiving adjuvant chemotherapy have an increased survival: A population-based longitudinal study. Ann Oncol 2013;24:160–5.
  • Bosset J-F, Collette L. Adjuvant chemotherapy for rectal cancer – Authors’ reply. Lancet Oncol 2014;15:e197–8.
  • Beets GL, Glimelius B. Adjuvant chemotherapy for rectal cancer still controversial. Lancet Oncol 2014;15:130–1.
  • Bujko K, Bujko M. Adjuvant chemotherapy for rectal cancer. Lancet 2008;371:1502–3; author reply 15x03.
  • Rodel C, Liersch T, Fietkau R, Hohenberger W, Graeven U, Hothorn T, et al. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy and postoperative chemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil and oxaliplatin versus 5-fluorouracil alone in locally advanced rectal cancer: Results of the German CAO/ARO/AIO-04 randomized phase III trial. J Clin Oncol 2014;32(Suppl; abstr 3500):5s.
  • Schmoll H-J, Haustermans K, Price TJ, Nordlinger B, Hofheinz R-D, Daisne J-F, et al. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy and postoperative chemotherapy with capecitabine and oxaliplatin versus capecitabine alone in locally advanced rectal cancer: Disease-free survival results at interim analysis. J Clin Oncol 2014;32(Suppl; abstr 3501):5s.
  • Hong YS, Nam B-H, Kim KP, Lee J-L, Park JO, Park YS, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy with oxaliplatin/5-fluorouracil/leucovorin (FOLFOX) versus 5-fluorouracil/leucovorin (FL) for rectal cancer patients whose postoperative yp stage 2 or 3 after preoperative chemoradiotherapy: Updated results of 3-year disease-free survival from a randomized phase II study (The ADORE). J Clin Oncol 2014;32(Suppl; abstr 3502):5s.
  • De Gramont A, Bosset JF, Milan C, Rougier P, Bouché O, Etienne PL, et al. Randomized trial comparing monthly low-dose leucovorin and fluorouracil bolus with bimonthly high-dose leucovorin and fluorouracil bolus plus continuous infusion for advanced colorectal cancer: A French intergroup study. J Clin Oncol 1997;15:808–15.
  • Glimelius B. Adjuvant chemotherapy in rectal cancer – an issue or a nonissue?Ann Oncol 2010;21:1739–41.
  • Russo AL, Borger DR, Szymonifka J, Ryan DP, Wittekind C, Blaszkowsky LS, et al. Mutational analysis and clinical correlation of metastatic colorectal cancer. Cancer 2014;120: 1482–90.
  • Sanz-Pamplona R, Cordero D, Berenguer A, Lejbkowicz F, Rennert H, Salazar R, et al. Gene expression differences between colon and rectum tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2011;17:7303–12.
  • Bae JM, Kim JH, Cho N-Y, Kim T-Y, Kang GH. Prognostic implication of the CpG island methylator phenotype in colorectal cancers depends on tumour location. Br J Cancer 2013;109:1004–12.
  • Yamauchi M, Lochhead P, Morikawa T, Huttenhower C, Chan AT, Giovannucci E, et al. Colorectal cancer: A tale of two sides or a continuum?Gut 2012;61:794–7.
  • The Cancer Genome Atlas Network. Comprehensive molecular characterization of human colon and rectal cancer. Nature 2012;487:330–7.
  • Slattery ML, Curtin K, Wolff RK, Boucher KM, Sweeney C, Edwards S, et al. A comparison of colon and rectal somatic DNA alterations. Dis Colon Rectum 2009;52:1304–11.
  • Chen Z, Liu Z, Li W, Qu K, Deng X, Varma MG, et al. Chromosomal copy number alterations are associated with tumor response to chemoradiation in locally advanced rectal cancer. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2011;50: 689–99.
  • Birkenkamp-Demtroder K, Olesen SH, Sørensen FB, Laurberg S, Laiho P, Aaltonen LA, et al. Differential gene expression in colon cancer of the caecum versus the sigmoid and rectosigmoid. Gut 2005;54:374–84.
  • Boisen MK, Johansen JS, Dehlendorff C, Larsen JS, Osterlind K, Hansen J, et al. Primary tumor location and bevacizumab effectiveness in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Ann Oncol 2013;24:2554–9.
  • Cunningham D, Atkin W, Lenz H-J, Lynch HT, Minsky B, Nordlinger B, et al. Colorectal cancer. Lancet 2010;375: 1030–47.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.