Electrical phenomena associated with bones and fractures and the therapeutic use of electricity in fracture healing

References

• Hartshorne. On the causes and treatment of pseudarthoroses and especially that form of it sometimes called supernumary joint. American Journal of Medical Science 1840; 1: 143
   Google Scholar
• Fukuda and Yasuda. On the piezo-electric effect of bone. J. Phys. Soc. Japan 1957; 12(10)1158–1162
   Google Scholar
• Friedenberg Z. B. Bioelectric potentials in bone. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (J.B.J.S.) 1966; 48A(5)915–923
   Google Scholar
• Becker R. O., Murray D. G. Electrical control system regulating fracture healing in amphibians. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (C.O.R.R.) 1970; 73: 169–198
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Friedenberg, Dyer Z. B.R.H., Brighton C. T. Electroosteograms of long bones in immature rabbits. Journal of Dental Research 1971; 50(3)635–639
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lokietek W., Pawluk R. J., Basset C. A. Muscle injury potentials: a source of voltage in the underformed rabbit tibia. J.B.J.S. 1974; 56B(3)361–369
   Google Scholar
• Dwyer N., Mattehews B. The electrical response to stress in dried, recently excised and living bone. Injury. 1970; 1(4)279–286
   Google Scholar
• Harlow M. C. The origin of resting potentials in the rabbit tibia. Surgical Forum., 22: 432–433
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Steinberg. Stress induced potentials in moist bone in vitro. J.B.J.S. 1974; 56A: 704–713
   Google Scholar
• Basset C. A.L. The biophysical principals affecting bone structure. The Biochemistry and Physiology of Bone 1971; 3: 32–35, Academic Press
   Google Scholar
• Bonfield W., Grynpas M. D. Anisotropy of Young's modulus for bone. Nature 1977; 270: 455–456
   Google Scholar
• Traina G. C., Mele R. Dynamic methods of measuring bone properties. Clinica Orto. Dell'Univ di Ferrara. 1979; 64(1)59–63
   Google Scholar
• Shamos M. H., Lavine L. S. Piezo-electricity as a fundamental property of biological tissues. Nature Jan 21, 1967; 267–269
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin R. B. Theoretical analysis of the piezo-electric effect in bone. J. Biomech. 1979; 12: 55–63
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lanyon L. E., Hartman W. Strain related electrical potentials recorded in vitro and. in vivo. Calcif. Tiss. Res. 1977; 22: 315–327
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lakes R. S., Saha S. A non contacting electromagnetic device for the determination of in vivo properties of bone. Medical Instrumentation 1978; 12(2)106–109
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cerquiglini. On the origin of electrical effects produced by stress in the hard tissues of living organisms. Life Sciences 1967; 6: 2651–2660
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Athenstaedt H. Permanent, longitudinal electric polarisation and pyro-electric behaviour of collagenous structures and nervous tissue in man and other vertebrates. Nature 1970; 228: 830–834
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker R. O. Bio electric factors controlling bone structure in bone dynamics, C.A.L. Basset, C.H. Bacman. Little, Brown, Boston 1964
   Google Scholar
• El Messiery M. A., Hastings G. W., Rakowski S. Ferro electricity of dry bone. J. Biomed Eng 1979; 1: 6–8
   Google Scholar
• El Messiery M. A., Hastings G. W., Rakowski S. Effect of system parameters on the frequency dependence of strain related potentials. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 1979; 17: 471–475
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marino A. A., Becker R. O. Piezo-electric effect and growth control in bone. Nature 1970; 228: 474–474
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liboff A. R., Furst M. Pyro-electric effect in collagenous structures. Annals New York Academy Science 1974; 238: 26–34
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Athenstaedt H. Pyro-electric and piezo-electric properties of vertebrates. Annals New York Academy Science 1974; 238: 68–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker R. O. The significance of bioelectric potentials. Bioelectrochem. and Bioenerget. 1974; 1: 187–199
   Google Scholar
• Singer M. The influence of the nerve in the regeneration of the amphibian extremety. Quart. Rev. Biol. 1952; 27: 169–200
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Becker R. O. Electrical osteogenesis -pro and con. Calcif. Tiss. Res. 1978; 26: 93–97
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Becker R. O., Spadaro J. A., Marino A. A. Clinical experiences with low intensity direct current stimulation of bone growth. Clinical Orth and Rel. Res. 1977; 124: 75–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basset C. A.L., Pawluk R. J., Becker R. O. Effects of electrical currents on bone. in vivo. Nature 1964; 204: 652–654
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yarington. Electrical control of bone growth in ossicles. Arch. Oto. 1969; 89: 856
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zengo A. N. In vivo effects of direct currents in the mandible. J. Dent. Res. 1976; 55(3)383–390
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O'Connor B. T. Effects of electric current on bone. in vivo. Nature 1969; 222: 162–162
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Minkin C., Poulton B. R., Hoover W. H. The effects of direct current on bone. C.O.R.R. 1968; 57: 303–309
   Google Scholar
• Hambury J. H., Watson J. The effect of micro Amp electrical current on bone in vivo and its measurement using strontium85 uptake. Nature 1971; 231: 190–191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedenberg Z. B. Bone reaction to varying amounts of direct current. Surg, Gyn, and Obstet. November, 1970; 894–899
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pfeiffer B. H. Electrical polarisation of the osteon system under mechanical stress. Z. Orthop. 1977; 115(2)209–215
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Treharne R. W., Brighton C. T. An in vitro study of electrical osteogenesis using direct and pulsating currents. Clin Orth 1979; 145: 300–306
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Landa V. A. Mechanisms of the stimulating action of an electric current on reparative regeneration of bone tissue. Exp. Biol. 1979; 1241–1242
   Google Scholar
• Masureik. Preliminary clinical evaluation of effects of small electric currents on jaw fracture. C.O.R.R. May, 1977
   Google Scholar
• Levy D. D. A pulsed electrical stimulation technique for inducing bone growth. Annals of N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1974; 238: 478–489
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klapper L., Stallard R. E. Mechanism of electrical stimulation of bone formation. Annals of N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1974; 238: 530–542
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weigert and Werhahn. The influence of electric potential on plated bone. Clin. Orth. and Rel. Res. May, 1977; 125
   Google Scholar
• Marino A. A. Electrical osteogenesis and analysis. C.O.R.R. 1977; 123: 280
   Google Scholar
• Peterson D. C. Electrical bone growth stimulation in an experimental model of delayed union. Lancet June, 1977; 18: 1278–1281
   Google Scholar
• Spadaro J. A. Treatment of local infections with electrically injected silver ions. Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc. 1976; 1: 114
   Google Scholar
• Spadaro J. A. Electrically stimulated bone growth in animals and man. C.O.R.R. 1977; 122: 325–332
   Google Scholar
• Srivstava K. P. Fracture healing in a case of non union of the tibia by electrical stimulation. Int. Surg. 1977; 62(1)35–36
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dmitriev A. E. Electrical stimulation as one of the methods of accelerated bone healing of crural bone fractures. Vestn Khir., 116(6)73–75
   Google Scholar
• Cass C. A. Some experiences of a battery stimulator in fractures with established non-union. Procand Rep. J.B.J.S. 1975; 57B: 251
   Google Scholar
• Brighton C. T. In vitro epiphysial plate growth in various constant electric fields. J.B.J.S. 1976; 58A: 971–978
   Google Scholar
• Romano. Per cutaneous electrical stimulation for fracture repair. C.O.R.R. 1976; 114: 290
   Google Scholar
• Marino A. A. Electrical osteogenesis: An analysis. C.O.R.R. 1977; 123: 280
   Google Scholar
• Haas S. L. Stimulation of bone growth with an electric current. J.B.J.S. 1963; 45A: 656
   Google Scholar
• Brighton C. T. The healing of non-unions and pseudarthroses by direct current. J.B.J.S. 1975; 57A: 368
   Google Scholar
• Harris. Differential response between electrical stimuli to fractures and to fractures left alone. C.O.R.R. May, 1977
   Google Scholar
• Connolly. Electrical enhancement of periosteal proliferation in normal and delayed fracture healing. C.O.R.R. May, 1975; 125
   Google Scholar
• Watson J., DeHaas W. G., Hauser S. S. Effects of electric fields on the growth rate of embryonic chick tibia in vitro. Nature 1975; 254: 331–332
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodin, Bourret, and Norton. D.N.A. synthesis in embryonal cartilage cells is stimulated by oscillating electric fields. Science 1978; 199: 690–692
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Norton L. A., Moore R. R. Bone growth in organ culture modified by an electric field. J. Dent. Res. 1972; 51(5)1492–1499
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McElhaney J. H., Stalnaker R., Bullard R. Electric fields and bone loss of disuse. J. Biomech. 1968; 1: 47–52
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Basset C. A.L., Pawluk R. J. Non-invasive methods of stimulating osteogenesis. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 1975; 9: 371–374
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yasuda I. Electrical callus and callus formation by electret. C.O.R.R. 1977; 124: 53–56
   Google Scholar
• Basset C. A.L. Repair of non-unions by pulsing electromagnetic fields. Acta. Orlop. Belg. 1978; 44: 706–724
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Basset C. A.L., Pawluk R. J., Pilla A. A. Augmentation of bone repair by inductively coupled electromagnetic fields. Science 1974; 184: 575–577
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basset C. A.L., Pawluk R. J., Pilla A. A. The acceleration of fracture repair by electromagnetic fields: A surgically noninvasive method. Annals of N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1974; 238: 242–262
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Basset C. A.L., Pilla A. A., Pawluk R. J. A non-operative salvage of surgically resistant pseudarthroses and nonunions by pulsing electromagnetic fields. C.O.R.R. 1977; 124: 128–143
   Google Scholar
• Sedel L. First results of the treatment of pseudarthroses by means of electro-magnetic stimulation. Sofcot, French society of Orthopaedics and trauma Paris November 7, 1979
   Google Scholar
• Basset C. A.L. Repair of non-unions by pulsing electromagnetic fields. Communications presented at seminar on ‘perplexing problems and scientific progress in fracture management’ at the University of Leuven, Belgium, September, 1978
   Google Scholar
• Sutcliffe M. L., Sharrard W. J.W. The treatment of fracture non-union by electromagnetic induction. British Orthopaedic Assoc. Spring Meeting, Sheffield, September 28
   Google Scholar
• Mulier J. C., Spaas F. Non-invasive outpatient treatment of surgically resistant non-unions by induced pulsing currents. European Society of Biomechanics, Strasbourg September 14, 1979
   Google Scholar
• Lechner F. Influence of electromagnetic potential on bone formation. Langenbecks Arch. Chir. 1975; 337: 361–365
   Google Scholar
• Wiegert, Von M., Werhahn C. Principles and methods of electrical stimulation of bone formation in humans. Zentrabl. Chir. 1978; 103(22)1495–1498
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lechner F. The influence of electromagnetic potentials on bone formation. Langenbecks Arch. Chir. 1974; 337: 631–635
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watson J., Downes E. M. The application of pulsed magnetic fields to the stimulation of bone healing in humans. Japan J. App. Phys. 1978; 17(1)215–217
   Google Scholar
• Watson J., Downes E. M. Clinical aspects of the stimulation of bone healing using electrical phenomena. Med and Biol. Eng. and Comp 1979; 17(2)161–169
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watson J. The electrical stimulation of bone healing. Proc of. I.E.E.E. 1979; 67(9)1339–1352
   Google Scholar
• Downes E. M., Watson J. Clinical experience with electromagnetic stimulation of bone healing. Presentation given at Chemical Society informal meeting 1–2 July 1980 at Inorganic Chemistry Lab, South Parks Rd, Oxford
   Google Scholar
• Muhlbauer W. The influence of magnetic fields in wound healing. Langenbecks Arch. Chir. 1967; 337: 637–642
   Google Scholar
• Perren S. M. Presentation at conference at Stoke-on-Trent Medical Institute, Hartshill, 9 May 1980, on Electrical Stimulation of Bone Healing. This took the form of three presentations of different work done at the Lab for Experimental Surgery, DavosSwitzerland
   Google Scholar
• Fitton Jackson S. The response of skeletal tissue grown in organ culture to pulsed magnetic fields. Presentation at the conference Electrical Stimulation of Bone Healing. 9 May, 1980. Medical Institute, Hartshill, Stoke-on-Trent
   Google Scholar
• Gjelsvik A. Bone remodeling and piezo-electricity—2. J. Biomech 1973; 6: 187–193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahn T. L. A possible mechanism for the effect of electrical potential on appatite formation in bone. C.O.R.R. 1968; 56: 261–273
   Google Scholar
• Jaffe and Nutticelli. Electrical control of development. Ann. Rev. Biophys. and Bioeng. 1977; 6: 445–476
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Groot K. Some consideration about bone induction. Calc. Tiss. Res. 1973; 13: 335–337
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tornberg D. N., Basset C. A.L. Activation of the resting periosteum. C.O.R.R. 1977; 129: 305–312
   Google Scholar
• Cone C. D. Unified theory on the basic mechanism of normal mitotic control and oncogenesis. J. Theoret. Biol. 1971; 30: 151–181
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamblen D. L. Scientific basis of present day fracture treatment. J. Royal Col Surg of Ed. 1979; 24(6)340–351
   Google Scholar
• Brighton C. T., Adler S., Black J. Cathodic oxygen consumption and electrically induced osteogenesis. Clin. Orthop., 107: 277–282; 2975
   Google Scholar
• Brighton C. T. In vitro rabbit articular cartilage organ model II. 35S Incorporation in various oxygen tensions. Arthritis Rheum. 1974; 17: 245–252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brighton C. T., Friedenberg Z. B. Electrical stimulation and oxygen tension. Annals of the N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1974; 238: 314–320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brighton C. T., Black J., Friedenberg Z. B. Treatment of nonunion with constant direct current. Presentation given at Chemical Society informal meeting 1–2 July 1980 at Inorganic Chemistry Lab, South Parks Rd, Oxford
   Google Scholar
• Gensler W. Bioelectric potentials and their relation to growth in higher plants. Annals of N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1974; 238: 280–298
   Google Scholar
• Cater D. B. Measurement of electrode potentials in living and dead tissues. Nature. 1954; 4420: 121–123
   Google Scholar
• Marsh G. The effect of 60-cycle a.c. current on the regeneration axis of ‘Dugesia’. J. E.xp. Zool, 169: 65–70
   Google Scholar