Dependence, Tolerance, and Addiction to Benzodiazepines: Clinical and Pharmacokinetic Considerations

References

• Greenblatt D. J., Shader R. I., Koch-Weser J. “Psychotropic Drug Use in the Boston Area: A Report from the Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program,”. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1975; 32: 518–521
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baiter M. B., Levine J., Manheimer D. I. “Cross-National Study of the Extent of Antianxiety/Sedative Drug Use,”. N. Engl. J. Med. 1974; 290: 769–774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isbell H. “Clinical Aspects of the Various Forms of Nonmedical Use of Drugs,”. Anesth. Analg. (Cleveland) 1971; 50: 886–905
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalant H., Le Blanc A. E., Gibbins R. J. “Tolerance to, and Dependence on, Some Nonopiate Psychotropic Drugs,”. Pharmacol. Rev. 1971; 23: 135–191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wikler A. “Dynamics of Drug Dependence: Implications of a Conditioning Theory for Research and Treatment,”. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1973; 28: 611–616
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollister L. E., Motzenbecker F. P., Degan R. O. “Withdrawal Reactions from Chlordiazepoxide (Librium),”. Psychopharmacologia 1961; 2: 63–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barten H. H. “Toxic Psychosis with Transient Dysmnestic Syndrome Following Withdrawal from Valium.”. Am. J. Psychiatry 1965; 121: 1210–1211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clare A. W. “Diazepam, Alcohol, and Barbiturate Abuse,”. Br. Med. J. 1971; 4: 340
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darcy L. “Delirium Tremens Following Withdrawal of Nitrazepam,”. Med. J. Aust 1972; 2: 450
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon E. B. “Addiction to Diazepam (Valium),”. Br. Med. J. 1967; 1: 112
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guile L. A. “Rapid Habituation to Chlordiazepoxide (Librium),”. Med. J. Aust 1963; 2: 56–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanna S. M. “A Case of Oxazepam (Serenid D) Dependence,”. Br. J. Psychiatry 1972; 120: 443–445
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Relkin R. “Death Following Withdrawal of Diazepam,”. N.Y. State J. Med. 1966; 66: 1770–1772
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Selig J. W. “A Possible Oxazepam Abstinence Syndrome,”. J. Am. Med. Assoc 1966; 198: 951–952
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slater J. “Suspected Dependence on Chlordiazepoxide Hydrochloride (Librium),”. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 1966; 95: 416
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fruensgaard K. “Withdrawal Psychosis: A Study of 30 Consecutive Cases,”. Acta Psychiatr. Scand 1976; 53: 105–118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haskell D. “Withdrawal of Diazepam,”. J. Am. Med. Assoc 1975; 233: 135
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preskorn S. H., Denner L. J. “Benzodiazepines and Withdrawal Psychosis,”. J. Am. Med. Assoc 1977; 237: 36–38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floyd J. B., Jr., Murphy C. M. “Hallucinations Following Withdrawal of Valium,”. J. Ky. Med. Assoc 1976; 74: 549–550
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rifkin A., Quitkin F., Klein D. F. “Withdrawal Reaction to Diazepam,”. J. Am. Med. Assoc 1976; 236: 2172–2173
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Misra P. C. “Nitrazepam (Mogadon) Dependence,”. Br. J. Psychiatry 1975; 126: 81–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woody G. E., O'Brien C. P., Greenstein R. “Misuse and Abuse of Diazepam: An Increasingly Common Medical Problem,”. Int. J. Addict 1975; 10: 843–848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rementeria J. L., Bhatt K. “Withdrawal Symptoms in Neonates from Intrauterine Exposure to Diazepam,”. J. Pediatr 1977; 90: 123–126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Athinarayanan P., Pierog S. H., Nigam S. K., Glass L. “Chlordiazepoxide Withdrawal in the Neonate,”. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol 1976; 124: 212–213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenblatt D. J., Shader R. I., Koch-Weser J. “Pharmacokinetics in Clinical Medicine: Oxazepam Versus Other Benzodiazepines,”. Dis. Nerv. Syst 1975; 36: 6–13, (5, Sec 2)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greenblatt D. J., Shader R. I. “Benzodiazepines,”. N. Engl. J. Med. 1974; 291: 1011–1015; 1239–1243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollister L. E. “Valium: A Discussion of Current Issues,”. Psychosomatics 1977; 18: 44–58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covi L., Park L. C., Lipman R. S., Uhlenhuth E. H., Rickels K. “Factors Affecting Withdrawal Response to Certain Minor Tranquilizers,”. Drug Abuse: Social and Psycho-pharmacological Aspects, J. O. Cole, J. R. Wittenborn. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois 1969; 93–108
   Google Scholar
• Covi L., Lipman R. S., Pattison J. H., Derogatis L. R., Uhlenhuth E. H. “Length of Treatment with Anxiolytic Sedatives and Response to Their Sudden Withdrawal,”. Acta Psychiatr. Scand 1973; 49: 51–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollister L. E. “Withdrawal from Benzodiazepine Therapy,”. J. Am. Med. Assoc 1977; 237: 1432
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winstead D. K., Anderson A., Eilers M. K., Blackwell B., Zaremba A. L. “Diazepam on Demand: Drug-Seeking Behavior in Psychiatric Inpatients,”. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1974; 30: 349–351
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbard B., Kripke D. F. “Hypnotic and Minor Tranquilizer Use among Inpatients and after Discharge,”. Int. J. Addict 1976; 11: 403–408
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patch V. D. “The Dangers of Diazepam, a Street Drug,”. N. Engl. J. Med. 1974; 290: 807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woody G. E., Mintz J., O'Hare K. C., O'Brien P., Greenstein R. A., Hargrove E. “Diazepam Use by Patients in a Methadone Program–How Serious a Problem?”. J. Psychedelic Drugs 1975; 7: 373–379
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adam K., Adamson L., Brezinova V., Hunter W. M., Oswald I. “Nitrazepam: Lastingly Effective but Trouble on Withdrawal,”. Br. Med. J. 1976; 1: 1558–1560
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenblatt D. J., Shader R. I., Harmatz J. S., Franke K., Koch-Weser J. “Absorption Rate, Blood Concentrations, and Early Responses to Oral Chlordiazepoxide,”. Am. J. Psychiatry 1977; 134: 559–562
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLeod S. M., Giles H. G., Patzalek G., Thiessen J. J., Sellers E. M. “Diazepam Actions and Plasma Concentrations Following Ethanol Ingestion,”. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol., U 1977; 345–349
   Google Scholar
• Bliding A. “Effects of Different Rates of Absorption of Two Benzodiazepins on Subjective and Objective Parameters,”. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol 1974; 7: 201–211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillestad L., Hansen T., Melsom H. “Diazepam Metabolism in Normal Man. II. Serum Concentrations and Clinical Effect after Oral Administration and Cumulation,”. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther 1974; 16: 485–489
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan S. A., Jack M. L., Alexander K., Weinfeld R. E. “Pharmacokinetic Profile of Diazepam in Man Following Single Intravenous and Oral and Chronic Oral Administration,”. J. Pharm. Sci. 1973; 62: 1789–1796
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamble J. A. S., Dundee J. W., Gray R. C. “Plasma Diazepam Concentrations Following Prolonged Administration,”. Br. J. Anaesth 1976; 48: 1087–1090
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eatman F. B., Colburn W. A., Boxenbaum H. G., Posmanter H. H., Weinfeld R. E., Ronfeld R., Weissman L., Moore J. D., Gibaldi M., Kaplan S. A. “Pharmacokinetics of Diazepam Following Multiple-Dose Oral Administration to Healthy Human Subjects,”. J. Pharmacokinet. Biopharm 1977; 5: 481–494
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kaplan S. A.J., deSilva A. F., Jack M. L., Alexander K., Strojny N., Weinfeld R. E., Puglisi C. V., Weissman L. “Blood Level Profile in Man Following Chronic Oral Administration of Flurazepam Hydrochloride,”. J. Pharm. Sci. 1973; 62: 1932–1935
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenblatt D. J., Shader R. I., Koch-Weser J. “Flurazepam Hydrochloride,”. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther 1975; 17: 1–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenblatt D. J., Shader R. I., Koch-Weser J. “Flurazepam Hydrochloride, A Benzodiazepine Hypnotic,”. Ann. Intern. Med. 1975; 83: 237–241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannizzaro G., Nigito S., Provenzano P. M., Vitikova T. “Modification of Depressant and Disinhibitory Action of Flurazepam during Short Term Treatment in the Rat,”. Psycho-pharmacologia 1972; J26: 173–184
   Google Scholar
• Stein L., Berger B. D. “Psychopharmacology of 7-Chloro-5-(o-chlorophenyl)-1, 3-dihydro-3-hydroxy-2H-1, 4-benzodi-azepin-2-one (Lorazepam) in Squirrel Monkey and Rat,”. Arzneim.-Forsch 1971; 21: 1073–1078
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margules D. L., Stein L. “Increase of Antianxiety Activity and Tolerance of Behavioral Depression during Chronic Administration of Oxazepam,”. Psychopharmacologia 1968; 13: 74–80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matsuki K., Iwamoto T. “Development of Tolerance to Tranquilizers in the Rat,”. Jpn. J. Pharmacol 1966; 16: 191–197
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greenblatt D. J., Shader R. I. Benzodiazepines in Clinical Practice. Raven, New York 1974; 242–249
   Google Scholar
• Vesell E. S., Passananti G. T., Viau J. P., Epps J. E., Di Carlo F. J. “Effects of Chronic Prazepam Administration on Drug Metabolism in Man and Rat,”. Pharmacology, T 1972; 197–206
   Google Scholar
• Klotz U., Antonin K. H., Bieck P. R. “Comparison of the Pharmacokinetics of Diazepam after Single and Subchronic Doses,”. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol 1976; 10: 121–126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanto J., Iisalo E., Lehtinen V., Salminen J. “The Concentrations of Dia zepam and Its Metabolites in the Plasma after an Acute and Chronic Administration,”. Psychopharmacologia 1974; 36: 123–131
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sellman R., Kanto J., Raijola E., Pekkarinen A. “Induction Effect of Diazepam on Its Own Metabolism,”. Acta. Phar-macol. Toxicol 1975; 37: 345–351
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program. “Clinical Depression of the Central Nervous System Due to Diazepam and Chloriazepoxide in Relation to Cigarette Smoking and Age,”. N. Engl. J. Med. 1973; 288: 277–280
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klotz U., Avant G. R., Hoyumpa A., Schenker S., Wilkinson G. R. “The Effects of Age and Liver Disease on the Disposition and Elimination of Diazepam in Adult Man,”. J. Clin. Invest 1975; 55: 347–359
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar