The Paradigm of Two-Stage Carcinogenesis: A Critical Attitude

References

• Boutwell R K, Urbach F, Carpenter G. Experimental models. Biology of Skin Cancer (Excluding Melanomas), O D Laerum, O H Iversen. Report No. 15, UICC, Geneva 1981; Vol. 63: 109–123, UICC Technical Report Services
   Google Scholar
• Kuhn T S. The structure of scientific revolutions. International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, 2nd Ed. University of Chicago Press, University of Chicago, Chicago 1970; Vol. II
   Google Scholar
• Naess A. The Pluralist and Possibilist Aspects of the Scientific Enterprise. Allen & Unwin, Ltd, London 1972
   Google Scholar
• Laishes B A. Experimental approaches towards the biochemical analysis of chemical carcinogensis. Pesticide Chemist and Modern Toxicology, S Kris Bardal, et al. ACS Symposium Series No. 160, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC 1981; 198–215
   Google Scholar
• Carcinogenesis. Mechanisms of Tumor Promotion and Cocarcinogenesis, T J Slaga, A Sivak, R K Boutwell. Raven Press, New York 1978; Vol II
   Google Scholar
• Glass B. The establishment of modern genetical theory. Scientific Change, A C Crombie. Heinemann, London 1963; 521–541
   Google Scholar
• Sato G H. Cell culture, hormones, and growth factors. Control Mechanisms in Animal Cells. Specific Growth Factors, L Jimenes de Asua, R Levi-Montalcini, R Shields, S Iacobelli. Raven Press, New York 1980; 1–4
   Google Scholar
• Scarr S. Steps in the stream. The sciences. NY Acad Sci 1981; 21: 24–26
   Google Scholar
• Schufle J A. Is there a scientific method?. Texas J Sci 1979; 31: 189–192
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Symposium on Health Effects of Tumor Promotion. October 12-15, 1981. Cincinnati, Ohio 1981, Sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the American College of Toxicology (Abstracts)
   Google Scholar
• Kreyberg L. Aetiology of Lung Cancer. Universitets forlaget, Oslo 1969
   Google Scholar
• Meurman O, Kiviluoto R, Hakama M. Mortality and morbidity among the working population of anthophyllite asbestos miners in Finland. Br J Ind Med 1974; 31: 105–112
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goerttler K, Loehrke H, Schweizer J, Hesse B. Positive two-stage carcinogenesis in female Sprague-Dawley rats using 7,12-dimethylbenz-(a)-anthracene (DMBA) as initiator and 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) as promotor. Virch Arch A 1980; 385: 181
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Brien T G. The induction of ornithine decarboxylase as an early possibly obligatory event in mouse skin carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1976; 36: 2644–2653
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boutwell R K, O'Brien T G, Verma A K, Weekes R G, De Young L M, Ashendel C L, Astrup E G. On the biochemical mechanism of tumor promotion in mouse skin. Naturally Occuring Carcinogens—Mutagens and Modulators of Carcinogenesis, E C Miller, et al. Japan Scientific Society Press, and University Park Press, Tokyo, Baltimore 1979; 287–300
   Google Scholar
• Mufson R A. Effects of tumor promoters on cyclic nucleotide metabolism in mouse skin and epidermis in vivo. Carcinogenesis, T J Slaga, A Sivak, R K Boutwell. Raven Press, New York 1978; Vol. II: 135–151
   Google Scholar
• Klein-Szanto A JP, Major S K, Slaga T J. Induction of dark keratinocytes by 12-0-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate and mezerein as an indicator of tumor-promoting efficiency. Carcinogenesis 1980; 1: 399–406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solt D B, Cayama E, Sarma D SR, Farber E. Persistence of resistant putative preneoplastic hepatocytes induced by N-nitrosodiethylamine or N-methyl-N-nitrosourea. Cancer Res 1980; 40: 1112–1118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr I C, Laishes B A. Carcinogen-induced drug resistance in rat hepatocytes. Cancer Res 1981; 41: 1715–1719
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iversen O H. Hairless mouse skin in two-stage chemical carcinogenesis. An experimental study with special reference to cell kinetics, papilloma regression and the possible development of increased cellular resistance. Virch Arch B 1982; 38: 263–272
   Google Scholar
• Argyris T S. The nature of the epidermal growth produced by the first application of 12-0-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate on the skin of mice initiated with dimethylbenzanthracene. J Invest Derm 1981; 77: 230–234
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sisskin E E, Barrett J C. Hyperplasia of Syrian hamster epidermis induced by single but not multiple treatments with 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. Cancer Res 1981; 41: 346–350
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pound A V. Carcinogenesis and cell proliferation. N Zealand Med J 1968; 67: 88–99
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Terzagi M, Nettesheim P. Dynamics of neoplastic development in carcinogen-exposed tracheal mucosa. Cancer Res 1979; 39: 4003–4010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iversen O H. Epidermal cell kinetics and carcinogenesis. Cell Biology and Tumor Immunology. Excerpta Medica International Congress Series, No. 349, Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam 1975; Vol 1: 24–28
   Google Scholar
• Orr J W (1963) The role of the stroma in epidermal carcinogenesis. The First International Conference on the Biology of Cutaneous Cancer. 1963, F Urbach, H L Stewart. National Cancer Institute, Washington, DC, 531–537, Monograph No. 10
   Google Scholar
• Kreyberg L. Uber präcankröse Gefässveränderungen. Virch Arch Path Anat 1929; 273: 367–440
   Google Scholar
• Fleischmajer R. Stroma tissue and tumor invasiveness. Biology of Skin Cancer (Excluding Melanomas), O D Laerum, O H Iversen. UICC Technical Report Series, Report No. 15, UICC, Geneva 1981; Vol 63: 241–247
   Google Scholar
• Astrup E G, Iversen O H. The tumorigenic and carcinogenic effect of 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate when applied to the skin of BALB/cA and hairless mice. Acta Path Microbiol Scand Sect A 1983; 91: 103–113
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iversen O H, Iversen U. A study of epidermal tumorigenesis in the hairless mouse with single and with repeated applications of 3-methylcholanthrene at different dosages. Acta Path Microbiol Scand 1964; 62: 305–314
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iversen O H, Kauffman S L. A circadian variation in the susceptibility of mouse epidermis to chemical carcinogens. Int J Chronobiol 1981; 7: 203–216
   Google Scholar
• Int J Chronobiol 1982; 2: 95–96
   Google Scholar
• Frei J V, Slaga T J. Comment on epidermal hyperplasia and tumor promotion. J Natl Cancer Inst 1977; 59: 299–300
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Argyris T S, Slaga T J. Promotion of carcinomas by repeated abrasion in initiated skin of mice. Cancer Res 1981; 41: 5193–5195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boutwell R K, Urbach F, Carpenter G. Experimental models. Biology of Skin Cancer (Excluding Melanomas), O D Laerum, O H Iversen. UICC Technical Report Series, Report No: 15., UICC, Geneva 1981; Vol. 63: 110
   Google Scholar
• Hennings H, Boutwell R K. Studies on the mechanism of skin tumor promotion. Cancer Res 1970; 30: 312–320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark-Lewis I, Murray A W. Tumor production and the induction of epidermal ornithine decarboxylase activity in mechanically stimulated mouse skin. Cancer Res 1978; 38: 494–497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iversen U, Iversen O H. Tumours of the skin. Tumours in a Tropical Country. Recent Results in Cancer Research, A C Templeton. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 1973; Vol. 41.: 180–199
   Google Scholar
• Baba Aoki T. K, Ishii M. Relation between the so-called two-phase theory and summation in carcinogenesis. Gann 1967; 58: 161–166
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iversen O H, Iversen U. Must initiators come first? Tumorigenic and carcinogenic effects on skin of 3-meth-ylcholanthrene and TPA in various sequences. Br J Cancer 1982; 45: 912–920
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iversen O H. Enhancement of methylnitrosourea skin carcinogenesis by inhibiting cell proliferation with hydroxyurea or skin chalones. Carcinogenesis 1982; 8: 881–889
   Google Scholar
• Iversen O H. Hydroxyurea enhances methylnitrosourea skin tu-morigenesis when given shortly (especially 30 min) before, but not after, the carcinogen. Carcinogenesis 1982; 8: 891–894
   Google Scholar
• Goerttler K, Loerke H. Improved tumour yields by means of a TPA-DMBA-TPA variation of the BERENBLUM-MOTTRAM experiment on the back skin of NMR1 mice. Exp Path 1976; 12: 336–341
   Google Scholar
• Iversen O H. The time needed for normalization of hairless mouse epidermis after treatment with twice weekly applications of 10 nmoles 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in acetone, or acetone alone, for 18 weeks. Carcinogenesis 1981; 2: 1353–1358
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Setälä K. Nature and mechanism of tumor promotion in skin carcinogenesis in mice. Acta Union Int Contra Cancrum 1961; 17: 33–44
   Google Scholar
• Boutwell R K, Bosch D K. The tumor-promoting action of phenol and related compounds for mouse skin. Cancer Res 1959; 19: 413–427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. IARC, Lyon 1976; Vol 10: 79–84, Some Naturally Occurring Substances
   Google Scholar
• Parry J M, Parry E M, Barrett J C. Tumour promoters induce mitotic aneuploidy in yeast. Nature (London) 1981; 294: 263–265
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dzarlieva R, Schütz S, Fusenig N E. Spontaneous and cocarcinogen induced chromosome aberrations in primary and permanent mouse epidermal cells. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 1981; 99(3)A61–A62, Abstracts
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marx I L. Do tumor promoters affect DNA after all?. Science 1983; 219: 158–159
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitot H C, Sirica A. The stages of initiation and promotion in hepatocarcinogenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta 1980; 605: 191–215
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper G M. Cellular transforming genes. Science 1982; 218: 801–806, see also Marx JL: The case of the misplaced gene
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Science 1982; 218: 983–985
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Principles for the Testing and Evaluation of Drugs for Carcinogenicity. Technical Report No. 426, WHO, GenevaSwitzerland 1969
   Google Scholar
• Sims P. The metabolic activation of chemical carcinogens. Br Med Bull 1980; 36: 11–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deringer M K. Response of strain HR/De mice to painting with urethan. J Natl Cancer Inst 1962; 29: 1107–1121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slaga T J, Bowden G T, Shapas B G, Boutwell R K. Macromolecular synthesis following a single application of polycyclic hydrocarbons used as initiators of mouse skin tumorigenesis. Cancer Res 1974; 34: 771–777
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saffiotti U, Shubik P. The effects of low concentrations of carcinogen in epidermal carcinogenesis. A comparison with promoting agents. J Natl Cancer Inst 1956; 16: 961–969
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hennings H, Shores R, Wenk M L, Yuspa S H. Conversion of papillomas to carcinomas is increased by tumor initiators and unaffected by a tumor promoter. Abstract to AACR meeting, San Diego, May, 1983
   Google Scholar
• Eckhardt R E. Industrial Carcinogens. Grune and Stratton, New York 1959; 164
   Google Scholar
• Boutwell R K. Some biological aspects of skin carcinogenesis. Progr Exp Tumor Res 1964; 4: 207–250, especially p 225, see Figure 14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mufson R A, Fisher S M, Verma A K, Gleason G L, Slaga T J, Boutwell R K. Effects of 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate and mezerein on epidermal ornithine-decarboxylase activity, isoproterenol stimulated levels of cyclic adenosine 3':5'-monophosphate, and induction of mouse skin tumors in vivo. Cancer Res 1979; 39: 4791–4795
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slaga T J. Studies on the mechanism of skin tumor promotion, evidence for several stages in promotion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1980; 77: 3659–3663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumberg P M. In vitro studies on the mode of action of the phorbol esters, potent tumor promoters. Part I, CRC Crit Rev Toxicol 1980; 10: 153–197, especially the quotation from p 179
   Google Scholar
• Colburn N. Tumor promotion and preneoplatic progression. Carcinogenesis, T J Slaga. Raven Press, New York 1980; Vol 5: 33–56
   Google Scholar
• Slaga T J. Overview of tumor promotion in animals. International Symposium on Health Effects of Tumor Promotion. Cincinatti, Ohio 1981, Sponsored by EPA and ACT
   Google Scholar
• Astrup E G, Iversen O H. Cell population kinetics in hairless mouse epidermis following a single topical application of 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. I. Carcinogenesis 1981; 2: 999–1006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Astrup E G, Iversen O H. Cell population kinetics in hairless mouse epidermis following a single topical application of 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate II. Virch Arch B 1983; 42: 1–18
   Google Scholar
• Hawley-Nelson P, Stanely J R, Schmidt J, Gullino M, Yuspa S H. The tumor promoter 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate accelerates keratinocyte differentiation and stimulates growth of an unidentified cell type in cultured human epidermis. Exp Cell Res 1982; 137: 155–167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackenzie I A. The effects of frictional stimulation on mouse ear epidermis. II. Histologic appearance and cell counts. J Invest Dermatol 1974; 63: 194–198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hueper W C. The skin as an assay system for potential carcinogens. Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 1963; 10: 577–610
   Google Scholar
• Nakahara W. Critique of carcinogenic mechanism. Progress in Experimental Tumor Research, F Homburger. Karger, Basel, New York 1961; Vol II: 158–202
   Google Scholar
• Iversen O H. Urethan (ethyl carbamate) alone is carcinogenic for mouse skin. Carcinogenesis, in press
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar