Vascular calcification and hypertension: Cause and effect

References

• Kim KM. Calcification of matrix vesicles in human aortic valve and aortic media. Fed Proc. 1976;35:156–62.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Virchow R. Cellular pathology. As based upon physiological and pathological histology. Lecture XVI—Atheromatous affection of arteries. 1858. Nutr Rev. 1989;47:23–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy WA Jr, NeddenDz D, Gostner P, Knapp R, Recheis W, Seidler H. The iceman: discovery and imaging. Radiology. 2003;226:614–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollack OJ. Experimental arteriopathies in the rabbit. In: Roberts JC and Straus R. Harper, editors. Comparative atherosclerosis: the morphology of spontaneous and induced atherosclerotic lesions in animals and its relation to human disease. New York, USA: Harper and Row; 1965, p. 291–308.
   Google Scholar
• McCarthy JH, Palmer FJ. Incidence and significance of coronary artery calcification. Br Heart J. 1974;36:499–506.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haust MD, More RH. Spontaneous lesions of the aorta in the rabbit. In: Comparative atherosclerosis: the morphology of spontaneous and induced atherosclerotic lesions in animals and its relation to human disease. 1965. p. 255–75.
   Google Scholar
• Proudfoot D, Shanahan CM, Weissberg PL. Vascular calcification: new insights into an old problem. J Pathol. 1998;185:1–3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shroff RC, Shanahan CM. The vascular biology of calcification. Semin Dial. 2007;20:103–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proudfoot D, Shanahan CM. Biology of calcification in vascular cells: Intima versus media. Herz. 2001;26:245–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stary H. Atlas of atherosclerosis: progression and regression. New York, USA: Parthenon; 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Ross R. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: a perspective for the 1990s. Nature. 1993;362:801–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agatston AS, Janowitz WR, Hildner FJ, Zusmer NR, Viamonte M, Detrano R. Quantification of coronary artery calcium using ultrafast computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;15:827–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agatston AS, Janowitz WR, Kaplan G, Gasso J, Hildner F, Viamonte M. Ultrafast computed tomography-detected coronary calcium reflects the angiographic extent of coronary arterial atherosclerosis. J Am CollCardiol. 1994; 74:1272–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honye J, Mahon DJ, Jain A, White CJ, Ramee SR, Wallis JB, . Morphological effects of coronary balloon angioplasty in vivo assessed by intravascular ultrasound imaging. Circulation. 1992;85:1012–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Rourke RA, Brundage BH, Froelicher VF, Greenland P, Grundy SM, Hachamovitch R, . American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Expert Consensus Document on electron-beam computed tomography for the diagnosis and prognosis of coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36:326–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon A, Levenson J. Early detection of subclinical atherosclerosis in asymptomatic subjects at high risk for cardiovascular disease. Clin Exp Hypertens. 1993;15:1069–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wexler L, Brundage B, Crouse J, Detrano R, Fuster V, Maddahi J, . Coronary artery calcification: pathophysiology, epidemiology, imaging methods, and clinical implications. A statement for health professionals from the American Heart Association Writing Group. Circulation. 1996;94:1175–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross M-L, Meyer H-P, Ziebart H, Rieger P, Wenzel U, Amann K, . Calcification of coronary intima and media: immunohistochemistry, backscatter imaging, and x-ray analysis in renal and nonrenal patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;2:121–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura S, Ishibashi-Ueda H, Niizuma S, Yoshihara F, Horio T, Kawano Y. Coronary calcification in patients with chronic kidney disease and coronary artery disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;4:1892–900.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwarz U, Buzello M, Ritz E, Stein G, Raabe G, Wiest G, . Morphology of coronary atherosclerotic lesions in patients with end-stage renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2000;15:218–23.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sharma SK, Israel DH, Kamean JL, Bodian CA, Ambrose JA. Clinical, angiographic, and procedural determinants of major and minor coronary dissection during angioplasty. Am Heart J. 1993;126:39–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farb A, Burke AP, Tang AL, Liang TY, Mannan P, Smialek J, . Coronary plaque erosion without rupture into a lipid core. A frequent cause of coronary thrombosis in sudden coronary death. Circulation. 1996;93:1354–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang H, Virmani R, Younis H, Burke AP, Kamm RD, Lee RT. The impact of calcification on the biomechanical stability of atherosclerotic plaques. Circulation. 2001;103: 1051–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doherty TM, Detrano RC. Coronary arterial calcification as an active process: A new perspective on an old problem. Calcif Tissue Int. 1994;54:224–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson PD, Davies MJ, Born GV. Influence of plaque configuration and stress distribution on fissuring of coronary atherosclerotic plaques. Lancet. 1989;2:941–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ge J, Chirillo F, Schwedtmann J, Görge G, Haude M, Baumgart D, . Screening of ruptured plaques in patients with coronary artery disease by intravascular ultrasound. Heart. 1999;81:621–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehara S, Kobayashi Y, Yoshiyama M, Shimada K, Shimada Y, Fukuda D, . Spotty calcification typifies the culprit plaque in patients with acute myocardial infarction: an intravascular ultrasound study. Circulation. 2004;110: 3424–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li X, Kramer MC, van der Loos CM, Koch KT, de Boer OJ, Henriques JPS, . A pattern of disperse plaque microcalcifications identifies a subset of plaques with high inflammatory burden in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis. 2011;218:83–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Virmani R, Burke AP, Kolodgie FD, Farb A. Pathology of the thin-cap fibroatheroma: a type of vulnerable plaque. J Interv Cardiol. 2003;16:267–72.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vengrenyuk Y, Carlier S, Xanthos S, Cardoso L, Ganatos P, Virmani R, . A hypothesis for vulnerable plaque rupture due to stress-induced debonding around cellular microcalcifications in thin fibrous caps. ProcNatlAcadSci USA. 2006;103:14678–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewence AE, Bootman M, Roderick HL, Skepper JN, McCarthy G, Epple M, . Calcium phosphate crystals induce cell death in human vascular smooth muscle cells: a potential mechanism in atherosclerotic plaque destabilization. Circ Res. 2008;103:e28–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proudfoot D, Shanahan CM. Nanocrystals seed calcification in more ways than one. Kidney Int. 2011;79:379–82.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shanahan CM. Inflammation ushers in calcification: a cycle of damage and protection? Circulation. 2007;116: 2782–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Graham I, Atar D, Borch-Johnsen K, Boysen G, Burell G, Cifkova R, . European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: executive summary: Fourth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:2375–414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niederhoffer N, Lartaud-Idjouadiene I, Giummelly P, Duvivier C, Peslin R, Atkinson J. Calcification of medial elastic fibers and aortic elasticity. Hypertension. 1997;29: 999–1006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Essalihi R, Dao HH, Yamaguchi N, Moreau P. A new model of isolated systolic hypertension induced by chronic warfarin and vitamin K1 treatment. Am J Hypertens. 2003;16:103–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guérin AP, London GM, Marchais SJ, Metivier F. Arterial stiffening and vascular calcifications in end-stage renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2000;15:1014–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blacher J, Guerin AP, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, London GM. Arterial calcifications, arterial stiffness, and cardiovascular risk in end-stage renal disease. Hypertension. 2001;38: 938–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• London GM. Cardiovascular calcifications in uremic patients: clinical impact on cardiovascular function. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003;14(Suppl 4):S305–9.
   Google Scholar
• Toussaint ND, Lau KK, Strauss BJ, Polkinghorne KR, Kerr PG. Associations between vascular calcification, arterial stiffness and bone mineral density in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23:586–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dao HH, Essalihi R, Bouvet C, Moreau P. Evolution and modulation of age-related medial elastocalcinosis: impact on large artery stiffness and isolated systolic hypertension. Cardiovasc Res. 2005;66:307–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henrion D, Chillon JM, Godeau G, Muller F, Capdeville-Atkinson C, Hoffman M, . The consequences of aortic calcium overload following vitamin D3 plus nicotine treatment in young rats. J Hypertens. 1991;9:919–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEniery CM, McDonnell BJ, So A, Aitken S, Bolton CE, Munnery M, . Aortic calcification is associated with aortic stiffness and isolated systolic hypertension in healthy individuals. Hypertension. 2009;53:524–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurent S, Cockcroft J, Van Bortel L, Boutouyrie P, Giannattasio C, Hayoz D, . Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness: methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:2588–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golestani R, Tio R, Zeebregts CJ, Zeilstra A, Dierckx RA, Boersma HH, . Abdominal aortic calcification detected by dual X-ray absorptiometry: A strong predictor for cardiovascular events. Ann Med. 2010;42:539–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verbeke F, Van Biesen W, Honkanen E, Wikström B, Jensen PB, Krzesinski J-M, . Prognostic value of aortic stiffness and calcification for cardiovascular events and mortality in dialysis patients: outcome of the calcification outcome in renal disease (CORD) study. Clin J Am SocNephrol. 2011;6:153–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• vanPopele NM, Grobbee DE, Bots ML, Asmar R, Topouchian J, Reneman RS, . Association between arterial stiffness and atherosclerosis: the Rotterdam Study. Stroke. 2001;32:454–60.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Proudfoot D, Skepper JN, Shanahan CM, Weissberg PL. Calcification of human vascular cells in vitro is correlated with high levels of matrix Gla protein and low levels of osteopontin expression. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Bio. 1998;18:379–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmid K, McSharry WO, Pameijer CH, Binette JP. Chemical and physicochemical studies on the mineral deposits of the human atherosclerotic aorta. Atherosclerosis. 1980;37:199–210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlstrom D, Engfeldt B, Engstrom A, Ringertz N. Studies on the chemical composition of normal and abnormal blood vessel walls. I. Chemical nature of vascular calcified deposits. Lab Invest. 1953;2:325–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson HC. Molecular biology of matrix vesicles. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1995;(314):266–80.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kirsch T, Nah HD, Shapiro IM, Pacifici M. Regulated production of mineralization-competent matrix vesicles in hypertrophic chondrocytes. J Cell Biol. 1997;137:1149–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson HC. Calcific diseases. A concept. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1983;107:341–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman T, Glagov S, Carroll JD. Restenosis following successful balloon valvuloplasty: bone formation in aortic valve leaflets. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1993;29:1–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bunting CH. The formation of true bone with cellular (red) marrow in a sclerotic aorta. J Exp Med. 1906;8:365–76.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mohler ER, Gannon F, Reynolds C, Zimmerman R, Keane MG, Kaplan FS. Bone formation and inflammation in cardiac valves. Circulation. 2001;103:1522–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt JL, Fairman R, Mitchell ME, Carpenter JP, Golden M, Khalapyan T, . Bone formation in carotid plaques: a clinicopathological study. Stroke. 2002;33:1214–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanimura A, McGregor DH, Anderson HC. Matrix vesicles in atherosclerotic calcification. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1983;172:173–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kockx MM, Muhring J, Bortier H, De Meyer GR, Jacob W. Biotin- or digoxigenin-conjugated nucleotides bind to matrix vesicles in atherosclerotic plaques. Am J Pathol. 1996;148:1771–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hashimoto S, Ochs RL, Rosen F, Quach J, McCabe G, Solan J, . Chondrocyte-derived apoptotic bodies and calcification of articular cartilage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998;95:3094–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo G, Ducy P, McKee MD, Pinero GJ, Loyer E, Behringer RR, . Spontaneous calcification of arteries and cartilage in mice lacking matrix GLA protein. Nature. 1997;386:78–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munroe PB, Olgunturk RO, Fryns JP, Van Maldergem L, Ziereisen F, Yuksel B, . Mutations in the gene encoding the human matrix Gla protein cause Keutel syndrome. Nat Genet. 1999;21:142–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanahan CM, Weissberg PL. Smooth muscle cell heterogeneity: patterns of gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro and in vivo. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18:333–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell GR, Campbell JH. Smooth muscle phenotypic changes in arterial wall homeostasis: implications for the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Ex MolPathol. 1985;42: 139–62.
   Google Scholar
• Iyemere VP, Proudfoot D, Weissberg PL, Shanahan CM. Vascular smooth muscle cell phenotypic plasticity and the regulation of vascular calcification. J Intern Med. 2006; 260:192–210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boström K, Watson KE, Horn S, Wortham C, Herman IM, Demer LL. Bone morphogenetic protein expression in human atherosclerotic lesions. J Clin Invest. 1993;91: 1800–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson KE, Boström K, Ravindranath R, Lam T, Norton B, Demer LL. TGF-beta 1 and 25-hydroxycholesterol stimulate osteoblast-like vascular cells to calcify. J Clin Invest. 1994;93:2106–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayr M, Grainger D, Mayr U, Leroyer AS, Leseche G, Sidibe A, . Proteomics, metabolomics, and immunomics on microparticles derived from human atherosclerotic plaques. Circ Cardio vasc Genet. 2009;2:379–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds JL, Joannides AJ, Skepper JN, McNair R, Schurgers LJ, Proudfoot D, . Human vascular smooth muscle cells undergo vesicle-mediated calcification in response to changes in extracellular calcium and phosphate concentrations: a potential mechanism for accelerated vascular calcification in ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004;15:2857–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proudfoot D, Skepper JN, Hegyi L, Bennett MR, Shanahan CM, Weissberg PL. Apoptosis regulates human vascular calcification in vitro: evidence for initiation of vascular calcification by apoptotic bodies. Circ Res. 2000;87: 1055–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanahan CM, Cary NR, Metcalfe JC, Weissberg PL. High expression of genes for calcification-regulating proteins in human atherosclerotic plaques. J Clin Invest. 1994;93: 2393–402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westenfeld R, Jahnen-Dechent W, Ketteler M. Vascular calcification and fetuin-A deficiency in chronic kidney disease. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2007;17:124–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shanahan CM, Crouthamel MH, Kapustin A, Giachelli CM. Arterial calcification in chronic kidney disease: key roles for calcium and phosphate. Circ Res. 2011;109: 697–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapustin AN, Davies JD, Reynolds JL, McNair R, Jones GT, Sidibe A, . Calcium regulates key components of vascular smooth muscle cell-derived matrix vesicles to enhance mineralization. Circ Res. 2011;109:e1–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen NX, Kircelli F, O'Neill KD, Chen X, Moe SM. Verapamil inhibits calcification and matrix vesicle activity of bovine vascular smooth muscle cells. Kidney Int. 2010; 77:436–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budoff MJ, Lane KL, Bakhsheshi H, Mao S, Grassmann BO, Friedman BC, . Rates of progression of coronary calcium by electron beam tomography. Am J Cardiol. 2000;86:8–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Achenbach S, Ropers D, Pohle K, Leber A, Thilo C, Knez A, . Influence of lipid-lowering therapy on the progression of coronary artery calcification: a prospective evaluation. Circulation. 2002;106:1077–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callister TQ, Raggi P, Cooil B, Lippolis NJ, Russo DJ. Effect of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors on coronary artery disease as assessed by electron-beam computed tomography. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1972–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCullough PA, Chinnaiyan KM. Annual progression of coronary calcification in trials of preventive therapies: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:2064–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Essalihi R, Zandvliet ML, Moreau S, Gilbert L-A, Bouvet C, Lenoël C, . Distinct effects of amlodipine treatment on vascular elastocalcinosis and stiffness in a rat model of isolated systolic hypertension. J Hypertens. 2007;25:1879–86.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Armstrong ZB, Boughner DR, Drangova M, Rogers KA. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker inhibits arterial calcification in a pre-clinical model. Cardiovasc Res. 2011; 90:165–70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dao HH, Essalihi R, Graillon J-F, Larivière R, De Champlain J, Moreau P. Pharmacological prevention and regression of arterial remodeling in a rat model of isolated systolic hypertension. J Hypertens. 2002;20:1597–606.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fleckenstein-Grün G, Thimm F, Frey M, Czirfusz A. Role of calcium in arteriosclerosis—experimental evaluation of antiarteriosclerotic potencies of Ca antagonists. Study Group for Calcium Antagonism. Basic Res Cardiol. 1994;89(Suppl 1):145–59.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Basalyga DM, Simionescu DT, Xiong W, Baxter BT, Starcher BC, Vyavahare NR. Elastin degradation and calcification in an abdominal aorta injury model: role of matrix metalloproteinases. Circulation. 2004;110: 3480–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin X, Corriere MA, Matrisian LM, Guzman RJ. Matrix metalloproteinase inhibition attenuates aortic calcification. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006;26: 1510–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yasmin, McEniery CM, Wallace S, Dakham Z, Pulsalkar P, Pusalkar P, . Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), MMP-2, and serum elastase activity are associated with systolic hypertension and arterial stiffness. ArteriosclerThromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar