68
Views
13
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Article

Scientific methods for assessing psychological defences

, &
Pages 435-446 | Accepted 21 Feb 1993, Published online: 12 Jul 2009

References

  • Cooper S H. Recent contributions to the theory of defense mechanisms: A comparative view. J Am Psychoanal Assoc 1989; 37: 865–91
  • Greenson R R. The technique and practice of psychoanalysis. International Universities Press, New York 1967
  • Vaillant G E. The clinical management of immature defenses in the treatment of individuals with personality disorders. Ego mechanisms of defense: A guide of clinicians and researchers., G E. Vaillant. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC 1992; 59–86
  • Popper K R. The logic of scientific discovery. Hutchinson, London 1959
  • Freud S. The neuro-psychoses of defence (1894). The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud., J Strachey. Hogarth Press, London 1962; Vol 3: 45–61
  • Vaillant G E. A brief history of empirical assessment of defense mechanisms. Empirical studies of ego mechanisms of defense., G E. Vaillant. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC 1986; viii-xx
  • Bellak L, Hurvich M, Gediman H. Ego functions in schizophrenics, neurotics and normals. John Wiley, New York 1973
  • McGlashan T H., Miller G H. The goals of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982; 39: 377–88
  • Høglend P, Sørlie T, Sørbye Ø, Heyerdahl O, Amlo S. Long-term changes after brief dynamic psychotherapy: symptomatic versus dynamic assessments. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1992; 86: 165–72
  • Freud A. The ego and the mechanisms of defence (1937). International Universities Press, New York 1966
  • Haan N. Proposed model of ego functioning: Coping and defense mechanisms in relationship to IQ change. Psychol Monogr 1963; 77: 1–23
  • Vaillant G E. Theoretical hierarchy of adaptive ego mechanisms. A 30-year follow-up of 30 men selected for psychological health. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1971; 24: 107–18
  • Freud A. Normality and pathology in childhood assessment of development. International Universities Press, New York 1965
  • Lazarus R, Folkman S. Stress, appraisal and coping. Springer, New York 1984
  • Ray C, Lindop J, Gibson S. The concept of coping. Psychol Med 1982; 12: 385–95
  • Ablon S L., Carlson G A., Goodwin F K. Ego defenses in manic-depressive illness. Am J Psychiatry 1974; 131: 803–7
  • Bond M P., Vaillant J S. An empirical study of the relationship between diagnosis and defense style. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986; 43: 285–8
  • Bond M, Perry J C., Gautier M, Goldenberg M, Oppenheimer J, Simand J. Validating the self-report of defense styles. J Pers Disord 1989; 3: 101–12
  • Akkerman K, Carr V, Lewin T. Changes in ego defenses with recovery from depression. J Nerv Ment Dis 1992; 180: 634–8
  • Vaillant G E. Adaptation to life. Little Brown, Boston 1977
  • Freud S. Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety (1926). The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, J Strachey. Hogarth Press, London 1959; Vol 20: 77–175
  • Pollock C, Andrews G. Defense styles associated with specific anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1989; 146: 1500–2
  • Vaillant G E., Drake R E. Maturity of ego defenses in relation to DSM-III axis II personality disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985; 42: 597–601
  • A draft glossary of defense mechanisms for DSM-III (R)., Vaillant G E. Empirical studies of ego mechanisms of defense. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC 1986; 103–5
  • Waelder R. The principle of multiple function. Psychoanalysis; observation, theory, application., S A. Guttman. International Universities Press, New York 1976; 68–83
  • Vaillant G E., Bond M, Vaillant C O. An empirically validated hierarchy of defense mechanisms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986; 43: 786–94
  • Kragh U, Smith G. Percept-genetic analysis. Gleerups, Lund 1970
  • Titelman D, Nilsson A. Are siblings of schizophrenic individuals psychologically disturbed? A perceptgenetic inquiry. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1992; 86: 411–7
  • Kragh U. The actual-genetic model of perception-personality. Gleerups, Lund 1955
  • Kragh U. DMT manual. Swedish Psychology International, Stockholm 1985
  • Fenichel O. The psychoanalytical theory of neurosis. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1946
  • Cooper C, Kline P. An evaluation of the defence mechanism test. Br J Psychol 1986; 77: 19–31
  • Neuman T. Dimensioning and validation of percept-genetic defence mechanisms. Försvarets Forskningsanstalt, Stockholm 1978
  • Kline P. The scientific status of the DMT. Br J Med Psychol 1987; 60: 53–9
  • Neuman T II. Personlighet och anpassning till militär flygning. Försvarsmekanismer som stabila personlighetsstrukturer. Två studier över DMT-seriers reliabilitet. MPI, Stockholm 1967, rapport 52
  • Sterman M B., Olff M. Topographic EEG correlates of perceptual defensiveness. Int J Aviation Psychol 1991; 2: 764–9
  • Malt U, Myhrer T, Blikra G, Høivik B. Psychopathology and accidental injuries. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1987; 76: 261–71
  • Von der Lippe A, Torgersen S. Character and defense: Relationships between oral obsessive and hysterical character traits and defense mechanisms. Scand J Psychol 1984; 25: 258–64
  • Sundbom E, Armelius B-Å. Reactions to DMT as related to psychotic and borderline personality organization. Scand J Psychol 1992; 33: 178–88
  • Olff M, Godaert G LR, Brosschot J F., Weiss K E., Ursin H. Tachistoscopic and questionnaire methods for the measurement of psychological defences. Scand J Psychol 1990; 31: 89–98
  • Vaillant G E. Natural history of male psychological health. V: The relation of choice of ego mechanisms of defense to adult adjustment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976; 33: 535–45
  • Roston D, Lee K, Vaillant G E. A Q-sort approach to identifying defenses. Ego mechanisms of defense: A guide for clinicians and researchers., G E. Vaillant. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC 1992; 217–33
  • Haan N. Coping and defending; Processes of self-environment organization. Academic Press, New York 1977
  • Jacobson A M., Beardslee W, Gelfand E, Hauser S T., Noam G G., Powers S I. An approach to evaluating adolescent ego defense mechanisms using clinical interviews. Ego mechanisms of defense: A guide for clinicians and researchers., G E. Vaillant. American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC 1992; 181–94
  • Loevinger J, Wessler R. Measuring ego development. Vol 1. Construction and use of a sentence completion test. Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco 1970
  • Perry J C. Defense mechanism rating scales. 5th ed. The Cambridge Hospital, Boston 1990
  • Perry J C., Kardos M E., Pagano C J. The study of defenses in psychotherapy using the Defense Mechanism Rating Scales (DMRS). The concept of defense mechanisms in contemporary psychology: theoretical, research, and clinical perspectives, U Hentschel, W Ehlers. Springer, New York, In press
  • Perry J C., Cooper S H. An empirical study of defense mechanisms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46: 444–52
  • Gough H. The California Psychological Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto 1956
  • Gleser G C., Ihilevich D. An objective instrument for measuring defense mechanisms. J Consult Clin Psychol 1969; 33: 51–60
  • Cramer P. The Defense Mechanism Inventory: a review of research and discussion of the scales. J Pers Assess 1988; 52: 142–64
  • Cooper C, Kline P. A validation of the Defense Mechanism Inventory. Br J Med Psychol 1982; 55: 209–14
  • Scholz J A. Defense styles in suicide attempters. J Consult Clin Psychol 1973; 41: 70–3
  • Plutchik R, Kellerman H, Conte H R. A structural theory of ego defenses and emotions. Emotions in personality and psychopathology., C E. Izard. Plenum, New York 1979; 229–57
  • Olff M, Endresen I. The Dutch and the Norwegian translations of the Plutchik questionnaire for psychological defence. Quantification of human defence mechanisms., M Olff, G Godaert, H Ursin. Springer, Heidelberg 1991
  • Bond M, Gardner S, Christian J, Sigal J J. Empirical study of self-rated defense styles. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1983; 40: 333–8
  • Pilkonis P A., Imber S D., Rubinsky P. Dimensions of life stress in psychiatric patients. J Human Stress 1985; (Spring): 5–10
  • Andrews G, Pollock C, Stewart G. The determination of defense style by questionnaire. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46: 455–60
  • Svartberg O M. Monitoring the competence of dynamic psychotherapists: a practical demonstration. Acta Psychiatr Seand 1989; 80: 292–6

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.