Interplay of Infections, Autoimmunity, and Immunosuppression in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

REFERENCES

• Perl A. Systems biology of lupus: mapping the impact of genomic and environmental factors on gene expression signatures, cellular signaling, metabolic pathways, hormonal and cytokine imbalance, and selecting targets for treatment. Autoimmunity 2010;43:32–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alarcón-Segovia D, Alarcón-Riquelme ME, Cardiel MH, Familial aggregation of systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and other autoimmune diseases in 1,177 lupus patients from the GLADEL cohort. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:1138–1147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cui Y, Sheng Y, Zhang X. Genetic susceptibility to SLE: recent progress from GWAS. J Autoimmun 2013;41:25–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crispín JC, Hedrich CM, Tsokos GC. Gene-function studies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2013;9:476–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Getts MT, Miller SD. 99th dahlem conference on infection, inflammation and chronic inflammatory disorders: triggering of autoimmune diseases by infections. Clin Exp Immunol 2010;160:15–21.
   Google Scholar
• Iliopoulos AG, Tsokos GC. Immunopathogenesis and spectrum of infections in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1996;25:318–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rovin BH, Tang Y, Sun J, Clinical significance of fever in the systemic lupus erythematosus patient receiving steroid therapy. Kidney Int 2005;68:747–759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francis L, Perl A. Infection in systemic lupus erythematosus: friend or foe? Int J Clin Rheumatol 2010;5:59–74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dias AMB, Do Couto MCM, Duarte CCM, White blood cell count abnormalities and infections in one-year follow-up of 124 patients with SLE. Ann NY Acad Sci 2009;1173:103–107.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hochberg MC. Updating the American College of Rheumatology revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1997;40:1725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarisbrick IA, Rodriguez M. Hit-Hit and Hit-Run: viruses in the playing field of multiple sclerosis. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2003;3:265–271.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zonana-Nacach A, Camargo-Coronel A, Yañez P, Infections in outpatients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective study. Lupus 2001;10:505–510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang C, Wang X, Ye S, Clinical features, prognostic and risk factors of central nervous system infections in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Rheumatol 2007;26:895–901.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeong SJ, Choi H, Lee HS, Incidence and risk factors of infection in a single cohort of 110 adults with systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand J Infect Dis 2009;41:268–274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza G, Olivares N, Ruiz-Arruza I, Predictors of major infections in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 2009:11.
   Google Scholar
• Chen M, Tseng H, Huang Y, Long-term outcome and short-term survival of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus after bacteraemia episodes: 6-yr follow-up. Rheumatology 2008;47:1352–1357.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Han BK, Bhatia R, Traisak P, Clinical presentations and outcomes of systemic lupus erythematosus patients with infection admitted to the intensive care unit. Lupus 2013;22:690–696.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wu S, Yeh K, Lee W, Impaired phagocytosis and susceptibility to infection in pediatric-onset systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2013;22:279–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zandman-Goddard G, Shoenfeld Y. SLE and infections. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2003;25:29–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng P, Lin S Yu C, Inadequate antimicrobial treatment for nosocomial infection is a mortality risk factor for systemic lupus erythematous patients admitted to intensive care unit. Am J Med Sci 2010;340:64–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies EJ, Snowden N, Hillarby MC, Mannose-binding protein gene polymorphism in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1995;38:110–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trendelenburg M. Antibodies against C1q in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Springer Semin Immunopathol 2005;27:276–285.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agnello V. Lupus diseases associated with hereditary and acquired deficiencies of complement. Springer Semin Immunopathol 1986;9:161–178.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lockshin MD, Qamar T, Redecha P, Harpel PC. Hypocomplementemia with low C1s-C1 inhibitor complex in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1986;29:1467–1472.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sliwinski AJ, Zvaifler NJ. Decreased synthesis of the third component of complement (C3) in hypocomplementemic systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Immunol 1972;11:21–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iida K, Mornaghi R, Nussenzweig V. Complement receptor (CR1) deficiency in erythrocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Exp Med 1982;155:1427–1438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neilan BA, Berney SN. Hyposplenism in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1983;10:332–334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang I, Park SH. Infectious complications in SLE after immunosuppressive therapies. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2003;15:528–534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Ravin SS, Naumann N, Cowen EW, Chronic granulomatous disease as a risk factor for autoimmune disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008;122:1097–1103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell AM, Kashgarian M, Shlomchik MJ. NADPH oxidase inhibits the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Sci Trans Med 2012:4.
   Google Scholar
• Kaplan MJ. Neutrophils in the pathogenesis and manifestations of SLE. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2011;7:691–699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshak-Rothstein A. Toll-like receptors in systemic autoimmune disease. Nature Rev Immunol 2006;6:823–835.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farkas L, Beiske K, Lund-Johansen F, Brandtzaeg P, Jahnsen FL. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (natural interferon-a/ß-producing cells) accumulate in cutaneous lupus erythematosus lesions. Am J Pathol 2001;159:237–243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rönnblom L, Alm GV. A pivotal role for the natural interferon a-producing cells (plasmacytoid dendritic cells) in the pathogenesis of lupus. J Exp Med 2001;194:F59–F63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lande R, Ganguly D, Facchinetti V, Neutrophils activate plasmacytoid dendritic cells by releasing self-DNA-peptide complexes in systemic lupus erythematosus. Sci Transl Med 2011:3. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3001180.
   Google Scholar
• Kadowaki N, Liu Y-. Natural type I interferon-producing cells as a link between innate and adaptive immunity. Hum Immunol 2002;63:1126–1132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Romo GS, Netting neutrophils are major inducers of type I IFN production in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Sci Transl Med 2011:3. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3001201.
   Google Scholar
• Blanco P, Palucka AK, Gill M, Induction of dendritic cell differentiation by IFN-a in systemic lupus erythematosus. Science 2001;294:1540–1543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett L, Interferon and granulopoiesis signatures in systemic lupus erythematosus blood. J Exp Med 2003;197:711–723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng X, Wu H, Grossman JM, Association of increased interferon-inducible gene expression with disease activity and lupus nephritis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2006;54:2951–2962.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shodell M, Shah K, Siegal FP. Circulating human plasmacytoid dendritic cells are highly sensitive to corticosteroid administration. Lupus 2003;12:222–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigurdsson S, Comprehensive evaluation of the genetic variants of interferon regulatory factor 5 (IRF5) reveals a novel 5 bp length polymorphism as strong risk factor for systemic lupus erythematosus. Hum Mol Genet 2008;17:872–881.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hakkim A, Impairment of neutrophil extracellular trap degradation is associated with lupus nephritis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010;107:9813–9818.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brinkmann V, Neutrophil extracellular traps kill bacteria. Science 2004;303:1532–1535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chitrabamrung S, Rubin RL, Tan EM. Serum deoxyribonuclease I and clinical activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol Int 1981;1:55–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leffler J, Neutrophil extracellular traps that are not degraded in systemic lupus erythematosus activate complement exacerbating the disease. J Immunol 2012;188:3522–3531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight JS, Carmona-Rivera C, Kaplan MJ. Proteins derived from neutrophil extracellular traps may serve as self-antigens and mediate organ damage in autoimmune diseases. Frontiers Immunol 2012;3. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00380.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tillack K, Breiden P, Martin R, Sospedra M. T lymphocyte priming by neutrophil extracellular traps links innate and adaptive immune responses. J Immunol 2012;188:3150–3159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagy G, Koncz A, Perl A. T- and B-cell abnormalities in systemic lupus erythematosus. Crit Rev Immunol 2005;25:123–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai Z, Hanczko R, Bonilla E, N-acetylcysteine reduces disease activity by blocking mTOR in T cells of lupus patients. Arthritis Rheum 2012; n/a-n/a.
   Google Scholar
• Tewthanom K, Janwitayanujit S, Totemchockcyakarn K, Panomvana Na, Ayudhya D. The effect of high dose of N-acetylcysteine in lupus nephritis: a case report and literature review. J Clin Pharm Ther 2010;35:483–485.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kaplan MJ, Radic M. Neutrophil extracellular traps: double-edged swords of innate immunity. J Immunol 2012;189:2689–2695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawai T, Akira S. Toll-like receptor and RIG-1-like receptor signaling. Ann NY Acad Sci 2008;1143:1–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correa RG, Milutinovic S, Reed JC. Roles of NOD1 (NLRC1) and NOD2 (NLRC2) in innate immunity and inflammatory diseases. Biosci Rep 2012;32:597–608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pothlichet J, Niewold TB, Vitour D, A loss-of-function variant of the antiviral molecule MAVS is associated with a subset of systemic lupus patients. EMBO Mol Med 2011;3:142–152.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Loo Y, Fornek J, Crochet N, Distinct RIG-I and MDA5 signaling by RNA viruses in innate immunity. J Virol 2008;82:335–345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perl A, Fernandez DR, Telarico T, T-cell and B-cell signaling biomarkers and treatment targets in lupus. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2009;21:454–464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwata Y, Matsushita T, Horikawa M, Characterization of a rare IL-10-competent B-cell subset in humans that parallels mouse regulatory B10 cells. Blood 2011;117:530–541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stohl W, Hamilton AS, Deapen DM, Impaired cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity in systemic lupus erythematosus following in vitro polyclonal T cell stimulation: a contributory role for non-T cells. Lupus 1999;8:293–299.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Puliaeva I, Puliaev R, Via CS. Therapeutic potential of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes in SLE. Autoimmun Rev 2009;8:219–223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwakura Y, Ishigame H. The IL-23/IL-17 axis in inflammation. J Clin Invest 2006;116:1218–1222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kammer GM. Altered regulation of IL-2 production in systemic lupus erythematosus: an evolving paradigm. J Clin Invest 2005;115:836–840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valencia X, Yarboro C, Illei G, Lipsky PE. Deficient CD4+CD25high T regulatory cell function in patients with active systemic lupus erythematosus. J Immunol 2007;178:2579–2588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandez DR, Telarico T, Bonilla E, Activation of mammalian target of rapamycin controls the loss of TCRzeta in lupus T cells through HRES-1/Rab4-regulated lysosomal degradation. J Immunol (Baltimore, MD: 1950) 2009;182:2063–2073.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delgoffe GM, Kole TP, Zheng Y, The mTOR kinase differentially regulates effector and regulatory T cell lineage commitment. Immunity 2009;30:832–844.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delgoffe GM, Pollizzi KN, Waickman AT, The kinase mTOR regulates the differentiation of helper T cells through the selective activation of signaling by mTORC1 and mTORC2. Nat Immunol 2011;12:295–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham JT, Rodgers JT, Arlow DH, mTOR controls mitochondrial oxidative function through a YY1-PGC-1α transcriptional complex. Nature 2007;450:736–740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim J, Kundu M, Viollet B, Guan KL. AMPK and mTOR regulate autophagy through direct phosphorylation of Ulk1. Nat Cell Biol 2011;13:132–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koren I, Reem E, Kimchi A. DAP1, a novel substrate of mTOR, negatively regulates autophagy. Curr Biol 2010;20:1093–1098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuballa P, Nolte WM, Castoreno AB, Xavier RJ. Autophagy and the immune system. Ann Rev Immunol 2012;30:611–646.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen S, Niso-Santano M, Adjemian S, Cytoplasmic STAT3 represses autophagy by inhibiting PKR activity. Mol Cell 2012;48:667–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gros F, Arnold J, Page N, Macroautophagy is deregulated in murine and human lupus T lymphocytes. Autophagy 2012;8(7):1113–1123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alessandri C, Barbati C, Vacirca D, T lymphocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus are resistant to induction of autophagy. FASEB J 2012;26:4722–4732.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou X-, Genetic association of PRDM1-ATG5 intergenic region and autophagy with systemic lupus erythematosus in a Chinese population. Ann Rheum Dis 2011;70:1330–1337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandez D, Bonilla E, Mirza N, Rapamycin reduces disease activity and normalizes T cell activation-induced calcium fluxing in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2006;54:2983–2988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caza TN, Talaber G, Perl A. Metabolic regulation of organelle homeostasis in lupus T cells. Clin Immunol 2012;144:200–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bono L, Cameron JS, Hicks JA. The very long-term prognosis and complications of lupus nephritis and its treatment. QJM 1999;92:211–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francis L, Perl A. Pharmacotherapy of systemic lupus erythematosus. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2009;10:1481–1494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houssiau FA, Vasconcelos C, D'Cruz D, Immunosuppressive therapy in lupus nephritis: the Euro-Lupus Nephritis Trial, a randomized trial of low-dose versus high-dose intravenous cyclophosphamide. Arthritis Rheum 2002;46:2121–2131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houssiau FA, D'Cruz D, Sangle S, Azathioprine versus mycophenolate mofetil for long-term immunosuppression in lupus nephritis: results from the MAINTAIN Nephritis Trial. Ann Rheum Dis 2010;69:2083–2089.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortin PR, Abrahamowicz M, Ferland D, Steroid-sparing effects of methotrexate in systemic lupus erythematosus: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Care Res 2008;59:1796–1804.
   Google Scholar
• Melander C, Sallée M, Trolliet P, Rituximab in severe lupus nephritis: early B-cell depletion affects long-term renal outcome. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:579–587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mosca M, Tani C, Carli L, Bombardieri S. Glucocorticoids in systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2011;29:S126–S129.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lionakis MS, Kontoyiannis DP. Glucocorticoids and invasive fungal infections. Lancet 2003;362:1828–1838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuck AE, Minder CE, Frey FJ. Risk of infectious complications in patients taking glucocorticosteroids. Rev Infect Dis 1989;11:954–963.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Franklin J, Lunt M, Bunn D, Risk and predictors of infection leading to hospitalisation in a large primary-care-derived cohort of patients with inflammatory polyarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2007;66:308–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martínez-Martínez MU, Herrera-Van Oostdam D, Román-Acosta S, Invasive fungal infections in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 2012;39:1814–1818.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Atzeni F, Bendtzen K, Bobbio-Pallavicini F, Infections and treatment of patients with rheumatic diseases. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2008;26:S67–S73.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klein NC, Go CH-, Cunha BA. Infections associated with steroid use. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2001;15:423–432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seki M, Ushiyama C, Seta N, Apoptosis of lymphocytes induced by glucocorticoids and relationship to therapeutic efficacy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1998;41:823–830.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCune WJ, Golbus J, Zeldes W, Clinical and immunologic effects of monthly administration of intravenous cyclophosphamide in severe systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 1988;318:1423–1431.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginzler EM, Dooley MA, Aranow C, Mycophenolate mofetil or intravenous cyclophosphamide for lupus nephritis. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2219–2228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryor BD, Bologna SG, Kahl LE. Risk factors for serious infection during treatment with cyclophosphamide and high-dose corticosteroids for systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:1475–1482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borba EF, Ribeiro ACM, Martin P, Incidence, risk factors, and outcome of herpes zoster in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Rheumatol 2010;16:119–122.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andrew RA, Derry S. Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials and cohort studies of mycophenolate mofetil in lupus nephritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2006:8.
   Google Scholar
• Gaubitz M, Schorat A, Schotte H, Mycophenolate mofetil for the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus: an open pilot trial. Lupus 1999;8:731–736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grootscholten C, Ligtenberg G, Hagen EC, Azathioprine/methylprednisolone versus cyclophosphamide in proliferative lupus nephritis. A randomized controlled trial. Kidney Int 2006;70:732–742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arends S, Grootscholten C, Derksen RHWM, Long-term follow-up of a randomised controlled trial of azathioprine/methylprednisolone versus cyclophosphamide in patients with proliferative lupus nephritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2012;71:966–973.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginzler E, Diamond H, Kaplan D, Computer analysis of factors influencing frequency of infection in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1978;21:37–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong JM, Esdaile JM. Methotrexate in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2005;14:101–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortin PR, Abrahamowicz M, Ferland D, Steroid-sparing effects of methotrexate in systemic lupus erythematosus: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Care Res 2008;59:1796–1804.
   Google Scholar
• Boerbooms AMT, Kerstens PJSM, Van Loenhout JWA, Infections during low-dose methotrexate treatment in rheumatoid arthritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1995;24:411–421.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shprecher D, Frech T, Chin S, Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy associated with lupus and methotrexate overdose. Lupus 2008;17:1029–1032.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramos-Casals M, Soto MJ, Cuadrado MJ, Khamashta MA. Rituximab in systemic lupus erythematosus A systematic review of off-label use in 188 cases. Lupus 2009;18:767–776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong D, Wright S, McVeigh C, Finch M. Infective endocarditis complicating rituximab (anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody) treatment in an SLE patient with a past history of Libman-Sacks endocarditis: a case for antibiotic prophylaxis? Clin Rheumatol 2006;25:583–584.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsai M-, Chou C-, Lin F-, Chang S-. Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus after rituximab therapy. Lupus 2012;21:914–918.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gerona JG, Navarra SV. Salmonella infections in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a case series. Int J Rheum Dis 2009;12:319–323.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Furie R, Petri M, Zamani O, A phase III, randomized, placebo-controlled study of belimumab, a monoclonal antibody that inhibits B lymphocyte stimulator, in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2011;63:3918–3930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarra SV, Guzmán RM, Gallacher AE, Efficacy and safety of belimumab in patients with active systemic lupus erythematosus: a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. The Lancet 2011;377:721–731.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahn BH. Belimumab for systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 2013;368:1528–1535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terada N, Lucas JJ, Szepesi A, Rapamycin inhibits the phosphorylation of p70 S6 kinase in IL-2 and mitogen-activated human T cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1992;186:1315–1321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aagaard-Tillery KM, Jelinek DF. Inhibition of human B lymphocyte cell cycle progression and differentiation by rapamycin. Cell Immunol 1994;156:493–507.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandez D, Perl A. mTOR signaling: a central pathway to pathogenesis in systemic lupus erythematosus? Discov Med 2010;9:173–178.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nagy G, Koncz A, Fernandez D, Perl A. Nitric oxide, mitochondrial hyperpolarization, and T cell activation. Free Radic Biol Med 2007;42:1625–1631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riise GC, Larsson S, Larsson P, The intrabronchial microbial flora in chronic bronchitis patients: a target for N-acetylcysteine therapy? Eur Respir J 1994;7:94–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aslam S, Trautner BW, Ramanathan V, Darouiche RO. Combination of tigecycline and N-acetylcysteine reduces biofilm-embedded bacteria on vascular catheters. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:1556–1558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Flora S, Grassi C, Carati L. Attenuation of influenza-like symptomatology and improvement of cell- mediated immunity with long-term N-acetylcysteine treatment. Eur Respir J 1997;10:1535–1541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roederer M, Staal FJT, Ela SW, N-Acetylcysteine: potential for AIDS therapy. Pharmacology 1993;46:121–129.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tugnet N, Rylance P, Roden D, Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs) and autoimmune rheumatic disease: is there a link? The Open Rheumatol J 2013;7:13–21.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yurasov S, Wardemann H, Hammersen J, Defective B cell tolerance checkpoints in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Exp Med 2005;201:703–711.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuels J, Ng Y-, Coupillaud C, Impaired early B cell tolerance in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Exp Med 2005;201:1659–1667.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovett-Racke AE, Trotter JL, Lauber J, Decreased dependence of myelin basic protein-reactive T cells on CD28- mediated costimulation in multiple sclerosis patients: a marker of activated/memory T cells. J Clin Invest 1998;101:725–730.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng G-, Tsokos GC. Cholera toxin B accelerates disease progression in lupus-prone mice by promoting lipid raft aggregation. J Immunol 2008;181:4019–4026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennig D, Yan Y, Ferguson K, O'Reilly RJ. A novel HLA class II-independent TCR-mediated T cell activation mechanism is distinguished by the Vß specificity of the proliferating oligoclones and their capacity to generate interleukin-2. Cell Immunol 1996;171:200–210.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lehmann PV, Forsthuber T, Miller A, Sercarz EE. Spreading of T-cell autoimmunity to cryptic determinants of an autoantigen. Nature 1992;358:155–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witt MN, Braun GS, Ihrler S, Schmid H. Occurrence of HSV-1-induced pneumonitis in patients under standard immunosuppressive therapy for rheumatic, vasculitic, and connective tissue disease. BMC Pulm Med 2009:9. doi: 10.1186/1471-2466-9-22.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang L, Liu J, Li M. Herpes simplex virus type 1 encephalitis and unusual retinitis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2013;22(13):1403–1408.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Catoggio C, Alvarez-Uría A, Fernandez PL, Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome triggered by fulminant disseminated herpes simplex infection in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2012;21:1359–1361.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wakui H, Togashi M, Omokawa A, Simultaneous herpes simplex virus esophagitis and lupus enteritis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Mod Rheumatol 2010;20:98–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cogman AR, Chakravarty EF. The case for Zostavax vaccination in systemic lupus erythematosus. Vaccine 2013;31:3640–3643.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Park H, Kim K, Park J, Association of reduced CD4 T cell responses specific to varicella zoster virus with high incidence of herpes zoster in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 2004;31:2151–2155.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McClain MT, Heinlen LD, Dennis GJ, Early events in lupus humoral autoimmunity suggest initiation through molecular mimicry. Nat Med 2005;11:85–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosén A, Gergely P, Jondal M, Polyclonal Ig production after Epstein-Barr virus infection of human lymphocytes in vitro [16]. Nature 1977;267:52–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babcock GJ, Decker LL, Volk M, Thorley-Lawson DA. EBV persistence in memory B cells in vivo. Immunity 1998;9:395–404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClain MT, Poole BD, Bruner BF, An altered immune response to Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 1 in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2006;54:360–368.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arbuckle MR, Gross T, Scofield RH, Lupus humoral autoimmunity induced in a primate model by short peptide immunization. J Invest Med 1998;46:58–65.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sundar K, Jacques S, Gottlieb P, Expression of the Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen-1 (EBNA-1) in the mouse can elicit the production of anti-dsDNA and anti-Sm antibodies. J Autoimmun 2004;23:127–140.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Draborg AH, Duus K, Houen G. Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Dev Immunol 2012:2012.
   Google Scholar
• James JA, Neas BR, Moser KL, Systemic lupus erythematosus in adults is associated with previous Epstein-Barr virus exposure. Arthritis Rheum 2001;44:1122–1126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James JA, Kaufman KM, Farris AD, An increased prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus infection in young patients suggests a possible etiology for systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Invest 1997;100:3019–3026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen M, Sauce D, Deback C, Exhausted cytotoxic control of Epstein-Barr virus in human lupus. PLoS Pathogens 2011:7.
   Google Scholar
• Gross AJ, Hochberg D, Rand WM, Thorley-Lawson DA. EBV and systemic lupus erythematosus: a new perspective. J Immunol 2005;174:6599–6607.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moon UY, Park SJ, Oh ST, Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus have abnormally elevated Epstein-Barr virus load in blood. Arthritis Res Ther 2004;6:R295–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yokochi T, Yanagawa A, Kimura Y, Mizushima Y. High titer of antibody to the Epstein-Barr virus membrane antigen in sera from patients with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1989;16:1029–1032.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cunha BA, Gouzhva O, Nausheen S. Severe cytomegalovirus (CMV) community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) precipitating a systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) flare. Heart Lung: J Acute Critical Care 2009;38:249–252.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Su BY-, Su C-, Yu S-, Chen C. Incidental discovery of high systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity associated with cytomegalovirus viral activity. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl.) 2007;196:165–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varani S, High TNF-alpha and IL-8 levels predict low blood dendritic cell counts in primary cytomegalovirus infection. J Clin Virol 2012;53:360–363.
   Google Scholar
• Yoon KH, Fong KY, Tambyah PA. Fatal cytomegalovirus infection in two patients with systemic lupus erythematosus undergoing intensive immunosuppressive therapy: role for cytomegalovirus vigilance and prophylaxis? J Clin Rheumatol 2002;8:217–222.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sun Y, Sun S, Li W, Prevalence of human herpesvirus 8 infection in systemic lupus erythematosus. Virol J 2011:8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Geraminejad P, Memar O, Aronson I, Kaposi's sarcoma and other manifestations of human herpesvirus 8. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;47:641–655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mesri EA, Cesarman E, Boshoff C. Kaposi's sarcoma and its associated herpesvirus. Nat Rev Cancer 2010;10:707–719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatterjee M, Osborne J, Bestetti G, Viral IL-6-induced cell proliferation and immune evasion of interferon activity. Science 2002;298:1432–1435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tackey E, Lipsky PE, Illei GG. Rationale for interleukin-6 blockade in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2004;13:339–343.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gergely Jr. P, Pullmann R, Stancato C, Increased prevalence of transfusion-transmitted virus and cross-reactivity with immunodominant epitopes of the HRES-1/p28 endogenous retroviral autoantigen in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Immunol 2005;116:124–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cope AP, Jones A, Brozovic M, Possible induction of systemic lupus erythematosus by human parvovirus. Ann Rheum Dis 1992;51:803–804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trapani S, Ermini M, Falcini F. Human parvovirus B19 infection: its relationship with systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1999;28:319–325.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyer O. Parvovirus B19 and autoimmune diseases. Joint Bone Spine 2003;70:6–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gatto M, Agmon-Levin N, Soriano A, Human papillomavirus vaccine and systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Rheumatol 2013:1–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tam L-, Chan AYK, Chan PKS, Increased prevalence of squamous intraepithelial lesions in systemic lupus erythematosus: association with human papillomavirus infection. Arthritis Rheum 2004;50:3619–3625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsukui T, Hildesheim A, Schiffman MH, Interleukin 2 production in vitro by peripheral lymphocytes in response to human papillomavirus-derived peptides: correlation with cervical pathology. Cancer Res 1996;56:3967–3974.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramos-Casals M, Font J, García-Carrasco M, Hepatitis C virus infection mimicking systemic lupus erythematosus: study of hepatitis C virus infection in a series of 134 Spanish patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2000;43:2801–2806.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cacoub P, Renou C, Rosenthal E, Extrahepatic manifestations associated with hepatitis C virus infection: a prospective multicenter study of 321 patients. Medicine 2000;79:47–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toubi E, Gordon S, Kessel A, Elevated serum B-Lymphocyte activating factor (BAFF) in chronic hepatitis C virus infection: association with autoimmunity. J Autoimmun 2006;27: 134–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahid Fadilah S, Norella K, Shahril M, The development of systemic lupus erythematosus following interferon-a therapy for hepatitis C infection. APLAR J Rheumatol 2006;9:286–289.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips PE, Christian CL. Myxovirus antibody increases in human connective tissue disease. Science 1970;168:982–984.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf RE, Ziff M. Lymphocyte response to virus antigens in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1976;19:1271–1277.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perl A, Fernandez D, Telarico T, Phillips PE. Endogenous retroviral pathogenesis in lupus. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2010;22:483–492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailer RT, Lazo A, Harisdangkul V, Lack of evidence for human T cell lymphotrophic virus type I or II infection in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1994;21:2217–2224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karube K, Ohshima K, Tsuchiya T, Expression of FoxP3, a key molecule in CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells, in adult T-cell leukaemia/lymphoma cells. Br J Haematol 2004;126:81–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pullmann Jr. R, Bonilla E, Phillips PE, Haplotypes of the HRES-1 endogenous retrovirus are associated with development and disease manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2008;58:532–540.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barthel HR, Wallace DJ. False-positive human immunodeficiency virus testing in patients with lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1993;23:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furie RA. Effects of human immunodeficiency virus infection on the expression of rheumatic illness. Rheum Dis Cli North Am 1991;17:177–188.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Drake WP, Byrd VM, Olsen NJ. Reactivation of systemic lupus erythematosus after initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Clin Rheumatol 2003;9:176–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelburne III SA, Hamill RJ, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: emergence of a unique syndrome during highly active antiretroviral therapy. Medicine 2002;81:213–227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crispín JC, Kyttaris VC, Terhorst C, Tsokos GC. T cells as therapeutic targets in SLE. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2010;6:317–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barblu L, MacHmach K, Gras C, Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) from HIV controllers produce interferon-and differentiate into functional killer pDCs under HIV activation. J Infect Dis 2012;206:790–801.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carugati M, Franzetti M, Torre A, Systemic lupus erythematosus and HIV infection: a whimsical relationship. Reports of two cases and review of the literature. Clin Rheumatol 2013:1–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hazarika I, Chakravarty BP, Dutta S, Mahanta N. Emergence of manifestations of HIV infection in a case of systemic lupus erythematosus following treatment with IV cyclophosphamide. Clin Rheumatol 2006;25:98–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paiardini M, Müller-Trutwin M. HIV-associated chronic immune activation. Immunol Rev 2013;254:78–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King MR, Ismail AS, Davis LS, Karp DR. Oxidative stress promotes polarization of human T cell differentiation toward a T helper 2 phenotype. J Immunol 2006;176:2765–2772.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobieszczyk ME, Hoover DR, Anastos K, Prevalence and predictors of metabolic syndrome among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women in the women's interagency HIV Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008;48:272–280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsiao FC, Lin M, Tai A, Cutting edge: Epstein-Barr virus transactivates the HERV-K18 superantigen by docking to the human complement receptor 2 (CD21) on primary B cells. J Immunol 2006;177:2056–2060.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blank M, Shoenfeld Y, Perl A. Cross-talk of the environment with the host genome and the immune system through endogenous retroviruses in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2009;18:1136–1143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieg AM, Gourley MF, Perl A. Endogenous retroviruses: potential etiologic agents in autoimmunity. FASEB J 1992;6:2537–2544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chu J-, Drappa J, Parnassa A, Elkon KB. The defect in Fas mRNA expression in MRL/lpr mice is associated with insertion of the retrotransposon, ETn. J Exp Med 1993;178:723–730.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Y-, Lindahl T, Barnes DE. Trex1 exonuclease degrades ssDNA to prevent chronic checkpoint activation and autoimmune disease. Cell 2007;131:873–886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morita M, Stamp G, Robins P, Gene-targeted mice lacking the Trex1 (DNase III) 3′→5′ DNA exonuclease develop inflammatory myocarditis. Mol Cell Biol 2004;24:6719–6727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee-Kirsch MA, Chowdhury D, Harvey S, A mutation in TREX1 that impairs susceptibility to granzyme A-mediated cell death underlies familial chilblain lupus. J Mol Med 2007;85:531–537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crow YJ, Hayward BE, Parmar R, Mutations in the gene encoding the 3’-5’ DNA exonuclease TREX1 cause Aicardi-Goutières syndrome at the AGS1 locus. Nat Genet 2006;38:917–920.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perl A, Nagy G, Koncz A, Molecular mimicry and immunomodulation by the HRES-1 endogenous retrovirus in SLE. Autoimmunity 2008;41:287–297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magistrelli C, Samoilova E, Agarwal RK, Polymorphic genotypes of the HRES-1 human endogenous retrovirus locus correlate with systemic lupus erythematosus and autoreactivity. Immunogenetics 1999;49:829–834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caza TN, Fernandez DR, Talaber G, HRES-1/Rab4-mediated depletion of Drp1 impairs mitochondrial homeostasis and represents a target for treatment in SLE. Ann Rheum Dis 2013.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baixauli F, Martín-Cófreces NB, Morlino G, The mitochondrial fission factor dynamin-related protein 1 modulates T-cell receptor signalling at the immune synapse. EMBO J 2011;30:1238–1250.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nagy G, Ward J, Mosser DD, Regulation of CD4 expression via recycling by HRES-1/RAB4 controls susceptibility to HIV infection. J Biol Chem 2006;281:34574–34591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piliero P, Furie R. Functional asplenia in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1990;20:185–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malleson P, Petty RE, Nadel H, Dimmick JE. Functional asplenia in childhood onset systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1988;15:1648–1652.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kamdar N, Zanzi I, Kroop S, Reversible functional asplenia in systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Nucl Med 1991;16:760–762.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Santilli D, Govoni M, Prandini N, Autosplenectomy and antiphospholipid antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus: a pathogenetic relationship? Semin Arthritis Rheum 2003;33: 125–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi CM, Kwok YY, Chak SL. Nocardiosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1997;26:675–683.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cheng H-, Huang D-, Leu H-. Disseminated nocardiosis with initial manifestation mimicking disease flare-up of systemic lupus erythematosus in an SLE patient [2]. Am J Med 2005;118:1297–1298.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dodds EM, Echandi LV, Puente SI, Kaufman S. Subretinal abscess due to Nocardia farcinica resistant to trimethoprim- sulfamethoxazole in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 2006;14:249–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hara H, Wakui F, Ochiai T. Disseminated nocardia farcinica infection in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Med Microbiol 2011;60:847–850.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mosel D, Harris L, Fisher E, Disseminated Nocardia infection presenting as hemorrhagic pustules and ecthyma in a woman with systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. J Dermatol Case Rep 2013;7:52–55.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tam L-, Li EK, Wong S-, Szeto C-. Risk factors and clinical features for tuberculosis among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in Hong Kong. Scand J Rheumatol 2002;31:296–300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weng C, Lee N, Liu M, A retrospective study of catastrophic invasive fungal infections in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus from southern Taiwan. Lupus 2010;19:1204–1209.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen HS, Tsai WP, Leu HS, Invasive fungal infection in systemic lupus erythematosus: an analysis of 15 cases and a literature review. Rheumatology 2007;46:539–544.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barber CE, Barnabe C. Another consequence of severe lupus: invasive fungal disease. J Rheumatol 2012;39:1772–1774.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hellmann DB, Petri M, Whiting-O'Keefe Q. Fatal infections in systemic lupus erythematosus: the role of opportunistic organisms. Medicine 1987;66:341–348.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wasserman AM, Sarantopoulos GP, Khanna D. Fungal leukocytoclastic vasculitis as a presentation of systemic vasculitis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Rheumatol 2009;15:383–386.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zimmermann III B, Spiegel M, Lally EV. Cryptococcal meningitis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1992;22:18–24.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pourrat O, Pitrou-Duterme E, Devoize J-, Bonnefoy M. Cryptococcal meningitis occurring eight years before a diagnosis of lupus was made. J Mycologie Medicale 2013.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mok CC, Lau CS, Yuen KY. Cryptococcal meningitis presenting concurrently with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1998;16:169–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsumura M, Kawamura R, Inoue R, Concurrent presentation of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Mod Rheumatol 2011;21:305–308.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mete B, Saltoglu N, Vanli E, Simultaneous cryptococcal and tuberculous meningitis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2013.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen Y, Liao W, Wen H, Primary cutaneous aspergillosis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Mycoses 2012;55:e42–e44.
   Google Scholar
• Gonzalez-Crespo MR, Gomez-Reino JJ. Invasive aspergillosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1995;24:304–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schattner A, Kagan A, Zimhony O. Aspergillus peritonitis in a lupus patient on chronic peritoneal dialysis. Rheumatol Int 2006;26:762–764.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yegneswaran Prakash P, Pandit V, Rao SP. Fulminant antiphospholipid antibody syndrome complicated by Aspergillus tracheobronchitis. Med Mycol Case Rep 2012;1:99–102.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lertnawapan R, Totemchokchyakarn K, Nantiruj K, Janwityanujit S. Risk factors of Pneumocystis jeroveci pneumonia in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol Int 2009;29:491–496.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barber C, Gold WL, Fortin PR. Infections in the lupus patient: perspectives on prevention. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2011;23:358–365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen KE, St. Clair EW. Disseminated histoplasmosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: case report and review of the literature. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1998;28:193–199.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Isotalo PA, McCarthy AE, Eidus L. Ovarian histoplasmosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Pathology 2000;32:139–141.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mok CC, Que TL, Tsui EYK, Lam WY. Mucormycosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2003;33:115–124.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Guarneri F, Guarneri B, Vaccaro M, Guarneri C. The human Ku autoantigen shares amino acid sequence homology with fungal, but not bacterial and viral, proteins. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2011;33:329–333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeves WH. Antibodies to the p70/p80 (Ku) antigens in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1992;18:391–414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segarra-Newnham M. Manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment of Strongyloides stercoralis infection. Ann Pharmacother 2007;41:1992–2001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mora CS, Segami MI, Hidalgo JA. Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in systemic lupus erythematosus and the antiphospholipid syndrome. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2006;36: 135–143.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rajadhyaksha A, Mehra S, Kawale J. Disseminated strongyloides in systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: a case report. Int J Rheum Dis 2012;15:e159–e161.
   Google Scholar
• Hunter CJ, Petrosyan M, Asch M. Dissemination of strongyloides stercoralis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus after initiation of albendazole: a case report. J Med Case Rep 2008:2. doi: 10.1186/1752-1947-2-156
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sakkas LI, Boulbou M, Kyriakou D, Immunological features of visceral leishmaniasis may mimic systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Biochem 2008;41:65–68.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tunccan OG, Tufan A, Telli G, Visceral leishmaniasis mimicking autoimmune hepatitis, primary biliary cirrhosis, and systemic lupus erythematosus overlap. Korean J Parasitol 2012;50:133–136.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zanini GM, de Moura Carvalho LJ, Brahimi K, Sera of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus react with plasmodial antigens and can inhibit the in vitro growth of Plasmodium falciparum. Autoimmunity 2009;42:545–552.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willcocks LC, Carr EJ, Niederer HA, A defunctioning polymorphism in FCGR2B is associated with protection against malaria but susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010;107:7881–7885.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waisberg M, Tarasenko T, Vickers BK, Genetic susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus protects against cerebral malaria in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011;108:1122–1127.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oates JC, Levesque MC, Hobbs MR, Nitric oxide synthase 2 promoter polymorphisms and systemic lupus erythematosus in African-Americans. J Rheumatol 2003;30:60–67.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• López-Nevot MÁ, Ramal L, Jiménez-Alonso J, Martín J. The inducible nitric oxide synthase promoter polymorphism does not confer susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology 2003;42:113–116.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen M, Aosai F, Norose K, Toxoplasma gondii infection inhibits the development of lupus-like syndrome in autoimmune (New Zealand Black x New Zealand White) F1 mice. Int Immunol 2004;16:937–946.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcox MH, Powell RJ, Pugh SF, Balfour AH. Toxoplasmosis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 1990;49:254–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amir DZ, Amar M, Groisman G, Weiner P. Toxoplasma infection in systemic lupus erythematosus mimicking lupus cerebritis. Mayo Clin Proc 1999;74:575–578.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hasni SA. Role of helicobacter pylori infection in autoimmune diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2012;24:429–434.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sawalha AH, Schmid WR, Binder SR, Association between systemic lupus erythematosus and Helicobacter pylori seronegativity. J Rheumatol 2004;31:1546–1550 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller A, Oertli M, Arnold ICH. Pylori exploits and manipulates innate and adaptive immune cell signaling pathways to establish persistent infection. Cell Commun Signal 2011:9. doi: 10.1186/1478-811X-9-25.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zaccone P, Cooke A. Vaccine against autoimmune disease: can helminths or their products provide a therapy? Curr Opin Immunol 2013;25:418–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strachan DP. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. Br Med J 1989;299:1259–1260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunne DW, Cooke A. A worm's eye view of the immune system: Consequences for evolution of human autoimmune disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2005;5:420–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Vlugt LEPM, Labuda LA, Ozir-Fazalalikhan A, Schistosomes induce regulatory features in human and mouse CD1d hi B cells: inhibition of allergic inflammation by IL-10 and regulatory T cells. PLoS ONE 2012:7.
   Google Scholar
• Khan AR, Fallon PG. Helminth therapies: translating the unknown unknowns to known knowns. Int J Parasitol 2013;43:293–299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bador KM, Intan S, Hussin S, Gafor AH. Serum procalcitonin has negative predictive value for bacterial infection in active systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2012;21:1172–1177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koike T, Sueishi M, Funaki H, Anti-phospholipid antibodies and biological false positive serological test for syphilis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Immunol 1984;56:193–199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss NL, Sadock VA, Sigal LH, False positive seroreactivity to Borrelia burgdorferi in systemic lupus erythematosus: the value of immunoblot analysis. Lupus 1995;4:131–137.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Araujo FG, Barnett EV, Gentry LO, Remington JS. False-positive anti-Toxoplasma fluorescent-antibody tests in patients with antinuclear antibodies. Appl Microbiol 1971;22:270–275.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Berkun Y, Zandman-Goddard G, Barzilai O, Infectious antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Lupus 2009;18:1129–1135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agmon-Levin N, Hughes G, Shoenfeld Y. The spectrum of ASIA: ‘Autoimmune (Auto-inflammatory) Syndrome induced by Adjuvants’. Lupus 2012;21:118–120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verstraeten T, Descamps D, David M, Analysis of adverse events of potential autoimmune aetiology in a large integrated safety database of AS04 adjuvanted vaccines. Vaccine 2008;26:6630–6638.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abu-Shakra M. Safety of vaccination of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2009;18:1205–1208 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duchini A, Goss JA, Karpen S, Pockros PJ. Vaccinations for adult solid-organ transplant recipients: current recommendations and protocols. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003;16:357–364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holvast B, Huckriede A, Wilschut J, Safety and efficacy of influenza vaccination in systemic lupus erythematosus patients with quiescent disease. Ann Rheum Dis 2006;65:913–918.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowe SR, Merrill JT, Vista ES, Influenza vaccination responses in human systemic lupus erythematosus: impact of clinical and demographic features. Arthritis Rheum 2011;63:2396–2406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louie JS, Nies KM, Shoji KT, Clinical and antibody responses after influenza immunization in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Intern Med 1978;88:790–792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ambrosino DM, Molrine DC. Critical appraisal of immunization strategies for prevention of infection in the compromised host. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 1993;7:1027–1050.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lipnick RN, Karsh J, Stahl NI, Pneumococcal immunization in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus treated with immunosuppressives. J Rheumatol 1985;12:1118–1121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battafarano DF, Battafarano NJ, Larsen L, Antigen-specific antibody responses in lupus patients following immunization. Arthritis Rheum 1998;41:1828–1834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klippel JH, Karsh J, Stahl NI, A controlled study of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1979;22:1321–1325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chakravarty EF, Michaud K, Katz R, Wolfe F. Increased incidence of herpes zoster among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2013;22:238–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harpaz R, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Seward JF. Prevention of herpes zoster: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports/Centers for Disease Control 2008;57:1–30; quiz CE2–304.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oxman MN, Levin MJ, Johnson GR, A vaccine to prevent herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia in older adults. N Engl J Med 2005;352:2271–2284+2365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naidus E, Damon L, Schwartz BS, Experience with use of Zostavax® in patients with hematologic malignancy and hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Am J Hematol 2012;87:123–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soybilgic A, Onel KB, Utset T, Safety and immunogenicity of the quadrivalent HPV vaccine in female Systemic Lupus Erythematosus patients aged 12 to 26 years. Pediatr Rheumatol 2013;11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soldevilla HF, Briones S, Navarra SV. Systemic lupus erythematosus following HPV immunization or infection? Lupus 2012;21:158–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aytac MB, Kasapcopur O, Asian M, Hepatitis B vaccination in juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2011;29:882–886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuruma KAM, Borba EF, Lopes MH, Safety and efficacy of hepatitis B vaccine in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2007;16:350–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza G, Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zeron P, Khamashta MA. Clinical efficacy and side effects of antimalarials in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review. Ann Rheum Dis 2010;69:20–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kužnik A, Benčina M, Švajger U, Mechanism of endosomal TLR inhibition by antimalarial drugs and imidazoquinolines. J Immunol 2011;186:4794–4804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rolain J-, Colson P, Raoult D. Recycling of chloroquine and its hydroxyl analogue to face bacterial, fungal and viral infections in the 21st century. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2007;30:297–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podrebarac TA, Jovaisas A, Karsh J. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia after discontinuation of hydroxychloroquine in 2 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1996;23:199–200.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vananuvat P, Suwannalai P, Sungkanuparph S, Primary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in patients with connective tissue diseases. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2011;41:497–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zysset MK, Montgomery MT, Redding SW, Dell'Italia LJ. Systemic lupus erythematosus: a consideration for antimicrobial prophylaxis. Oral Surg, Oral Med, Oral Pathol 1987;64:30–34.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar