Systemic immune activation in HIV and potential therapeutic options

References

• Brenchley JM, Price DA, Schacker TW, et al. Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection. Nat Med 2006;12:1365–1371
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ancuta P, Kamat A, Kunstman KJ, et al. Microbial translocation is associated with increased monocyte activation and dementia in AIDS patients. PloS One 2008;3:e2516
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandler NG, Wand H, Roque A, et al. Plasma levels of soluble CD14 independently predict mortality in HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2011;203:780–790
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chomont N, El-Far M, Ancuta P, et al. HIV reservoir size and persistence are driven by T cell survival and homeostatic proliferation. Nat Med 2009;15:893–900
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hazenberg MD, Otto SA, van Benthem BH, et al. Persistent immune activation in HIV-1 infection is associated with progression to AIDS. AIDS 2003;17:1881–1888
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciccocioppo R, Di Sabatino A, Parroni R, et al. Increased enterocyte apoptosis and Fas-Fas ligand system in celiac disease. Am J Clin Pathol 2001;115:494–503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Sabatino A, Ciccocioppo R, D'Alo S, et al. Intraepithelial and lamina propria lymphocytes show distinct patterns of apoptosis whereas both populations are active in Fas based cytotoxicity in coeliac disease. Gut 2001;49:380–386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandler NG, Koh C, Roque A, et al. Host response to translocated microbial products predicts outcomes of patients with HBV or HCV infection. Gastroenterology 2011;141:1220–1230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenchley JM, Douek DC. Microbial translocation across the GI tract. Ann Rev Immunol 2012;30:149–173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis CL, Ma ZM, Mann SK, et al. Molecular characterization of stool microbiota in HIV-infected subjects by panbacterial and order-level 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) quantification and correlations with immune activation. J Acquir Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2011;57:363–370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maresca M, Mahfoud R, Garmy N, et al. The virotoxin model of HIV-1 enteropathy: involvement of GPR15/Bob and galactosylceramide in the cytopathic effects induced by HIV-1 gp120 in the HT-29-D4 intestinal cell line. J Biomed Sci 2003;10:156–166
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balagopal A, Ray SC, De Oca RM, et al. Kupffer cells are depleted with HIV immunodeficiency and partially recovered with antiretroviral immune reconstitution. AIDS 2009;23:2397–2404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu JZ, Pezeshki M, Raffatellu M. Th17 cytokines and host-pathogen interactions at the mucosa: dichotomies of help and harm. Cytokine 2009;48:156–160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang W, Lederman MM, Hunt P, et al. Plasma levels of bacterial DNA correlate with immune activation and the magnitude of immune restoration in persons with antiretroviral-treated HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2009;199:1177–1185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Favre D, Mold J, Hunt PW, et al. Tryptophan catabolism by indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 alters the balance of TH17 to regulatory T cells in HIV disease. Sci Transl Med 2010;2:32ra36 (1–12)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sankaran S, George MD, Reay E, et al. Rapid onset of intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction in primary human immunodeficiency virus infection is driven by an imbalance between immune response and mucosal repair and regeneration. J Virol 2008;82:538–545
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naranbhai V, Samsunder N, Sandler NG, et al. Neither microbial translocation nor TLR responsiveness are likely explanations for preexisting immune activation in women who subsequently acquired HIV in CAPRISA 004. J Acquir Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2013;63:294–298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• d'Ettorre G, Paiardini M, Zaffiri L, et al. HIV persistence in the gut mucosa of HIV-infected subjects undergoing antiretroviral therapy correlates with immune activation and increased levels of LPS. Curr HIV Res 2011;9:148–153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nockher WA, Bergmann L, Scherberich JE. Increased soluble CD14 serum levels and altered CD14 expression of peripheral blood monocytes in HIV-infected patients. Clin Exp Immunol 1994;98:369–374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciccone EJ, Read SW, Mannon PJ, et al. Cycling of gut mucosal CD4+ T cells decreases after prolonged anti-retroviral therapy and is associated with plasma LPS levels. Mucosal Immunol 2010;3:172–181
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schacker TW, Nguyen PL, Beilman GJ, et al. Collagen deposition in HIV-1 infected lymphatic tissues and T cell homeostasis. J Clin Invest 2002;110:1133–1139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swain A, Coffin JM. Mechanism of transduction by retroviruses. Science 1992;255:841–845
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucchese G, Stufano A, Calabro M, Kanduc D. Charting the peptide crossreactome between HIV-1 and the human proteome. Front Biosci 2011;3:1385–1400
   Google Scholar
• Smits K, Iannucci V, Stove V, et al. Rho GTPase Cdc42 is essential for human T-cell development. Haematologica 2010;95:367–375
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Copetti T, Bertoli C, Dalla E, et al. p65/RelA modulates BECN1 transcription and autophagy. Mol Cell Biol 2009;29:2594–2608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coutinho A, Kazatchkine MD, Avrameas S. Natural autoantibodies. Curr Opin Immunol 1995;7:812–818
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeda K, Kaisho T, Akira S. Toll-like receptors. Ann Rev Immunol 2003;21:335–376
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marchetti G, Tincati C, Silvestri G. Microbial translocation in the pathogenesis of HIV infection and AIDS. Clin Microbiol Rev 2013;26:2–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nixon DE, Landay AL. Biomarkers of immune dysfunction in HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2010;5:498–503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Estes J, Baker JV, Brenchley JM, et al. Collagen deposition limits immune reconstitution in the gut. J Infect Dis 2008;198:456–464
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barclay GR. Endogenous endotoxin-core antibody (EndoCAb) as a marker of endotoxin exposure and a prognostic indicator: a review. Prog Clin Biol Res 1995;392:263–272
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kitchens RL. Role of CD14 in cellular recognition of bacterial lipopolysaccharides. Chem Immunol 2000;74:61–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson KV. Toll signaling pathways in the innate immune response. Curr Opin Immunol 2000;12:13–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassol E, Malfeld S, Mahasha P, et al. Persistent microbial translocation and immune activation in HIV-1-infected South Africans receiving combination antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2010;202:723–733
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papasavvas E, Azzoni L, Foulkes A, et al. Increased microbial translocation in ≤ 180 days old perinatally human immunodeficiency virus-positive infants as compared with human immunodeficiency virus-exposed uninfected infants of similar age. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011;30:877–882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guadalupe M, Reay E, Sankaran S, et al. Severe CD4+ T-cell depletion in gut lymphoid tissue during primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and substantial delay in restoration following highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Virol 2003;77:11708–11717
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mocroft A, Phillips AN, Gatell J, et al. Normalisation of CD4 counts in patients with HIV-1 infection and maximum virological suppression who are taking combination antiretroviral therapy: an observational cohort study. Lancet 2007;370:407–413
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore RD, Keruly JC, Gebo KA, Lucas GM. An improvement in virologic response to highly active antiretroviral therapy in clinical practice from 1996 through 2002. J Acquir Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2005;39:195–198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veazey RS, DeMaria M, Chalifoux LV, et al. Gastrointestinal tract as a major site of CD4+ T cell depletion and viral replication in SIV infection. Science 1998;280:427–431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore RD, Keruly JC. CD4+ cell count 6 years after commencement of highly active antiretroviral therapy in persons with sustained virologic suppression. Clin Infect Diseases 2007;44:441–446
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandler NG, Douek DC. Microbial translocation in HIV infection: causes, consequences and treatment opportunities. Nat Rev 2012;10:655–666
   Google Scholar
• Baker JV, Peng G, Rapkin J, et al. CD4+ count and risk of non-AIDS diseases following initial treatment for HIV infection. AIDS 2008;22:841–848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewden C, Chene G, Morlat P, et al. HIV-infected adults with a CD4 cell count greater than 500 cells/mm3 on long-term combination antiretroviral therapy reach same mortality rates as the general population. J Acquir Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2007;46:72–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Althoff KN, Gange SJ, Klein MB, et al. Late presentation for human immunodeficiency virus care in the United States and Canada. Clin Infect Dis 2010;50:1512–1520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalambokis GN, Tsianos EV. Rifaximin reduces endotoxemia and improves liver function and disease severity in patients with decompensated cirrhosis. Hepatology 2012;55:655–656
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlachogiannakos J, Saveriadis AS, Viazis N, et al. Intestinal decontamination improves liver haemodynamics in patients with alcohol-related decompensated cirrhosis. Aliment Pharmacol Therapeut 2009;29:992–999
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guslandi M, Petrone MC, Testoni PA. Rifaximin for active ulcerative colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2006;12:335
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lievin-Le Moal V, Servin AL. The front line of enteric host defense against unwelcome intrusion of harmful microorganisms: mucins, antimicrobial peptides, and microbiota. Clin Microbiol Rev 2006;19:315–337
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falk PG, Hooper LV, Midtvedt T, Gordon JI. Creating and maintaining the gastrointestinal ecosystem: what we know and need to know from gnotobiology. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 1998;62:1157–1170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly D, Conway S, Aminov R. Commensal gut bacteria: mechanisms of immune modulation. Trends Immunol 2005;26:326–333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooda S, Swanson KS, Fahey GC. Prebiotic mechanisms of action; 2012. Available from: http://www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/FoodForum/Presentations/05%2004%20George%20Fahey_Prebiotics_02232012.pdf [last accessed 14 Jun 2013]
   Google Scholar
• Gori A, Rizzardini G, Van't Land B, et al. Specific prebiotics modulate gut microbiota and immune activation in HAART-naive HIV-infected adults: results of the “COPA” pilot randomized trial. Mucosal Immunol 2011;4:554–563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barclay GR. Endotoxin-core antibodies: time for a reappraisal? Intens Care Med 1999;25:427–429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corl BA, Harrell RJ, Moon HK, et al. Effect of animal plasma proteins on intestinal damage and recovery of neonatal pigs infected with rotavirus. J Nutrit Biochem 2007;18:778–784
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bibiloni R, Fedorak RN, Tannock GW, et al. VSL#3 probiotic-mixture induces remission in patients with active ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2005;100:1539–1546
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sood A, Midha V, Makharia GK, et al. The probiotic preparation, VSL#3 induces remission in patients with mild-to-moderately active ulcerative colitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;7:1202–1209, 1209 e1201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta P, Andrew H, Kirschner BS, Guandalini S. Is lactobacillus GG helpful in children with Crohn's disease? Results of a preliminary, open-label study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutrit 2000;31:453–457
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irvine SL, Hummelen R, Hekmat S, et al. Probiotic yogurt consumption is associated with an increase of CD4 count among people living with HIV/AIDS. J Clin Gastroenterol 2010;44:e201–e205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piconi S, Parisotto S, Rizzardini G, et al. Hydroxychloroquine drastically reduces immune activation in HIV-infected, antiretroviral therapy-treated immunologic nonresponders. Blood 2011;118:3263–3272
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray SM, Down CM, Boulware DR, et al. Reduction of immune activation with chloroquine therapy during chronic HIV infection. J Virol 2010;84:12082–12086
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalil AC, LaRosa SP, Gogate J, et al. Influence of severity of illness on the effects of eritoran tetrasodium (E5564) and on other therapies for severe sepsis. Shock 2011;36:327–331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumgartner JD. Monoclonal anti-endotoxin antibodies for the treatment of gram-negative bacteremia and septic shock. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1990;9:711–716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brubaker PL, Anini Y. Direct and indirect mechanisms regulating secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucagon-like peptide-2. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2003;81:1005–1012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yazbeck R, Howarth GS, Abbott CA. Growth factor based therapies and intestinal disease: is glucagon-like peptide-2 the new way forward? Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2009;20:175–184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchman AL, Katz S, Fang JC, et al. Teduglutide, a novel mucosally active analog of glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) for the treatment of moderate to severe Crohn's disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2010;16:962–973
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun PP, Perianayagam MC, Jaber BL. Endotoxin-binding affinity of sevelamer: a potential novel anti-inflammatory mechanism. Kidney Intern Suppl 2009:S20–S25
   Google Scholar
• Stinghen AE, Goncalves SM, Bucharles S, et al. Sevelamer decreases systemic inflammation in parallel to a reduction in endotoxemia. Blood Purif 2010;29:352–356
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar