Publication Cover
Inhalation Toxicology
International Forum for Respiratory Research
Volume 21, 2009 - Issue sup3
161
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Provisional Advisory Levels (PALs) for phosgene (CG)

, , &
Pages 73-94 | Published online: 14 Oct 2009

References

  • Amoore JE, Hautala E. 1983. Odor as an aid to chemical safety: Odor thresholds compared with threshold limit values and volatilities for 214 industrial chemicals in air and water dilution. J Appl Toxicol 3:272–290.
  • Borak, J and WF Diller. 2001. Phosgene exposure: mechanisms of injury and treatment strategies. J Occup Environ Med 43:110–119
  • Box, GEP and H Cullumbine. 1947. The effect of exposure to sub-lethal doses of phosgene on the subsequent L(Ct)50 for rats and mice. Br J Pharmacol Chemother 2:38–55
  • Boyland, E, FF McDonald and MJ Rumens. 1946. The variation in the toxicity of phosgene for small animals with the duration of exposure. Br J Pharmacol 1:81–89
  • Bradley, BL and KM Unger. 1982. Phosgene inhalation: A case report. Texas Med 78:51–53
  • Brown, RFR, BJ Jugg, FMJ Harban, Z Ashley, CE Kenward, J Platt, A Hill, P Rice and PE Watkins. 2002. Pathophysiological responses following phosgene exposure in the anesthetized pig. J Appl Toxicol 22:263–269
  • Budavari, S, MJ O’Neil, A Smith and PE Heckelman. 1989. Phosgene. In: The Merck Index. Rahway, NJ: Merck, 7314.
  • Büscher, H. 1944. Green and yellow cross: Special pathology and therapy of injuries caused by the chemical war materials of the green cross group (phosgene and diphosgene) and of the yellow cross group (mustard gas and lewisite). Kettering Laboratory of Applied Physiology, Cincinnati, Ohio.
  • Burleson, GR and LL Keyes. 1989. Natural killer activity in Fischer-344 rat lungs as a method to assess pulmonary immunocompetence: Immunosuppression by phosgene inhalation. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 11:421–443
  • CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 69th ed. 1988–1989. Weast RC, Astle MJ, Beyer WH, eds. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, B–82.
  • Cameron, GR, FC Courtice and GL Foss. 1942. Effect of exposing different animals to low concentrations of phosgene (1:5,000,000 = 09 mg/m3) for 5 hours on five consecutive days. Second report. In: First Report on Phosgene Poisoning. Chapter VIII. Washington DC: British Embassy Defense Staff; Porton report, no. 2349 (as cited in US EPA, 1986).
  • Clay, JR and RG Rossing. 1964. Histopathology of exposure to phosgene: an attempt to produce pulmonary emphysema experimentally. Arch Pathol 78:544–551
  • Coman, DR, HD Bruner, RC Horn, M Friedman, RD Boche, MD McCarthy, MH Gibbon and J Schultz. 1947. Studies of experimental phosgene poisoning. Am J Pathol 23:1937–1074
  • Cordasco, EM, SR Demeter, L Kester, MA Cordasco, G Lammert and F Beerel. 1986. Pulmonary edema of environmental origin—Newer concepts. Angiol J Vasc Dis pp. 440-447.
  • Currie, WD, GE Hatch and MF Frosolono. 1987a. Pulmonary alterations in rats due to acute phosgene inhalation. Fundam Appl Toxicol 8:107–114
  • Currie, WD, GE Hatch and MF Frosolono. 1987b. Changes in lung ATP concentration in the rat after low-level phosgene exposure. J Biochem Toxicol 2:105–113
  • Diller, WF. 1985. Pathogenesis of phosgene poisoning. Toxicol Ind Health 1:7–13
  • Diller, WF, J Bruch and W Dehnen. 1985. Pulmonary changes in the rat following low phosgene exposure. Arch Toxicol 57:184–190
  • Dunlap, KL. 2001. Phosgene. In: Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Available at http://wwwmrwintersciencewileycom.
  • Ehrlich, JP, AE Gunnison and GR Burleson. 1989. Influenza virus-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity in Fischer 344 rat lungs as a method to assess pulmonary immunocompetence: Effect of phosgene inhalation. Inhal Toxicol 1:129–138
  • Everett, D and EL Overholt. 1968. Phosgene poisoning. JAMA 205:243- 245
  • Franch, S and GE Hatch. 1986. Pulmonary biochemical effects of inhaled phosgene in rats. J Toxicol Environ Health 19:413–423
  • Frosolono, MF and WD Currie. 1985. Response of the pulmonary surfactant system to phosgene. Toxicol Ind Health 1:29–35
  • Galdston, M, JA Luetscher, WT Longcope, NL Ballich, et al. 1947. A study of the residual effects of phosgene poisoning in human subjects. II. After chronic exposure. J Clin Invest XXVI:169–181
  • Gross, P, WE Rinehart and T Hatch. 1965. Chronic pneumonitis caused by phosgene: An experimental study. Arch Environ Health 10:768–775
  • Hatch, GE, U Kodavanti, K Crissman, R Slade and D Costa. 2001. An “injury-time integral” model for extrapolating from acute to chronic effects of phosgene. Toxicol Ind Health 17:285–293
  • Hatch, GE, R Slade, AG Stead and JA Graham. 1986. Species comparison of acute inhalation toxicity of ozone and phosgene. J Toxicol Environ Health 19:43–53
  • Illing, JW, ML, Mole, JA, Graham, TB, Williams, M Ménache, and DE, Gardner. 1988. Influence of phosgene inhalation on extrapulmonary effects in mice. Inhal Toxicol 1:13–20
  • Jaskot, RH, EC Grose and AG Stead. 1989. Increase in angiotensin-converting enzyme in rat lungs following inhalation of phosgene. Inhal Toxicol 1:71–78
  • Kawai, M. 1973. Inhalation toxicity of phosgene and chloropicrin. J Sangyo Igaku 15:406–407
  • Keeler, JR, HH Hurt, JB Nold, and WJ Lennox. 1990a. Estimation of the LCt50 of phosgene in sheep. Drug Chem Toxicol 13:229–239
  • Keeler, JR, HH Hurt, JB Nold, KD Corcoran and TM Tezak-Reid. 1990b Phosgene-induced lung injury in sheep. Inhal Toxicol 2:391–406
  • Kodavanti, UP, DL Costa, SN Giri, B Starcher and GE Hatch. 1997. Pulmonary structural and extracellular matrix alterations in Fischer 344 rats following subchronic exposure. Fundam Appl Toxicol 37:54–63
  • Marrs, TC, RL Maynard and FR Sidell. 1996. Chemical Warfare Agents: Toxicology and Treatment. New York: John Wiley and Sons
  • Meek, WJ and JAE Eyster. 1920. Experiments on the pathological physiology of acute phosgene poisoning. Am J Physiol LI:303–320
  • Ministry of Defense. 1987. Medical manual of defense against chemical agents. Ministry of Defense D/Med(F&S) (2)/10/1/1. London: HMSO (as cited in Marrs et al., 1996).
  • Misra, NP, PC Manoria and K Saxena. 1985. Fatal pulmonary oedema with phosgene poisoning. J Assoc Physicians India 33:430–431
  • NIOSH (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health). 1976. Criteria for a recommended standard: Occupational exposure to phosgene. NIOSH-76-137.
  • NIOSH (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health). 2005. Phosgene. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Available at http://wwwcdcgov/niosh/npg/ngpd0504html
  • Pauluhn, J. 2006a. Acute head-only exposure of dogs to phosgene. Part III. Comparison of indicators of lung injury in dogs and rats. Inhal Toxicol 18:609–621
  • Pauluhn, J. 2006b. Acute nose-only exposure of rats to phosgene. Part I. Concentration × time dependence of LC50s, non-lethal-threshold concentrations and analysis of breathing patterns. Inhal Toxicol 18:423–435
  • Pauluhn, J. 2006c. Acute nose-only exposure of rats to phosgene. Part II. Concentration × time dependence of changes in bronchoalveolar lavage during a follow-up period of 3 months. Inhal Toxicol 18:595–607
  • Polednak, AP. 1980. Mortality among men occupationally exposed to phosgene in 1943–1945. Environ Res 22:357–367
  • Polednak, AP and DR Hollis. 1985. Mortality and causes of death among workers exposed to phosgene in 1943-45. Toxicol Ind Health 1:137–147
  • Regan, RA. 1985. Review of clinical experience in handling phosgene exposure cases. Toxicol Ind Health 1:69–71
  • Rinehart, WE and T Hatch. 1964. Concentration-time product (CT) as an expression of dose in sublethal exposures to phosgene. Ind Hyg J Nov/Dec:545–553
  • Rossing, RG. 1964. Physiologic effects of chronic exposure to phosgene in dogs. Am J Physiol 2:265–272
  • Sciuto, AM. 1998. Assessment of early acute lung injury in rodents exposed to phosgene. Arch Toxicol 72:283–288
  • Sciuto, AM, TS Moran, A Narula and JS Forster. 2001. Disruption of gas exchange in mice after exposure to the chemical threat agent phosgene. Military Med 166:809–814
  • Selgrade, MK, MI Gilmour, YG Yang, GR Burleson and GE Hatch. 1995. Pulmonary host defenses and resistance to infection following subchronic exposure to phosgene. Inhal Toxicol 7:1257–1268
  • Selgrade, MK, DM Starnes, JW Illing, MJ Daniels and JA Graham. 1989. Effects of phosgene exposure on bacterial, viral and neoplastic lung disease susceptibility in mice. Inhal Toxicol 1:243–259
  • Sidell, FR, ET Takafuji, and DR Franz, eds. 1997. Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. Part 1. Textbook of Military Medicine. Washington, DC: TMM Publications, Borden Institute, 118–119, 257–260
  • Slade, R, JW Highfill and GE Hatch. 1989. Effects of depletion of ascorbic acid or nonprotein sulfhydryls on the acute inhalation toxicity of nitrogen dioxide, ozone and phosgene. Inhal Toxicol 1:261–271
  • Underhill, FP. 1920. The Lethal War Gasses: Physiology and Experimental Treatment. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
  • US EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). 1986. Health assessment document for phosgene. EPA/600/8-86/022A. Washington, DC: Office of Health and Environmental Assessment.
  • US EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). 2003. Phosgene: USEPA HPV challenge program test plan submission. EPA/201-14578A. Washington, DC.
  • US EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). 2005. Toxicological review of phosgene: In support of summary information on the integrated risk information system (IRIS). EPA/635/R-06/001. Washington, DC
  • Wells, BA. 1985. Phosgene: A practitioner’s viewpoint. Toxicol Ind Health 1:81–92
  • Winternitz, MC, RA Lambert and L Jackson. 1920. The Pathology of Phosgene Poisoning. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
  • Zwart, A, JHE Arts and JM Klokman-Houweling. 1990. Determination of concentration-time-mortality relationships to replace LC50 values. Inhal Toxicol 2:105–117

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.