Platelet interaction with bacterial toxins and secreted products

References

• Semple JW, Freedman J. Platelets and innate immunity. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010;67:499–511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox D, Kerrigan SW, Watson SP. Platelets and the innate immune system: Mechanisms of bacterial-induced platelet activation. J Thromb Haemost 2011;9:1097–1107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smyth SS, McEver RP, Weyrich AS, Morrell CN, Hoffman MR, Arepally GM, French PA, Dauerman HL, Becker RC. Platelet functions beyond hemostasis. J Thromb Haemost 2009;7:1759–66
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denis MM, Tolley ND, Bunting M, Schwertz H, Jiang H, Lindemann S, Yost CC, Rubner FJ, Albertine KH, Swoboda KJ, et al. Escaping the nuclear confines: Signal-dependent pre-mRNA splicing in anucleate platelets. Cell 2005;122:379–391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hotchkiss RS, Monneret G, Payen D. Sepsis-induced immunosuppression: From cellular dysfunctions to immunotherapy. Nat Rev Immunol 2013;13:862–874
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Opal SM, Garber GE, LaRosa SP, Maki DG, Freebairn RC, Kinasewitz GT, Dhainaut JF, Yan SB, Williams MD, Graham DE, et al. Systemic host responses in severe sepsis analyzed by causative microorganism and treatment effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated). Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:50–58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semeraro N, Ammollo CT, Semeraro F, Colucci M. Sepsis, thrombosis and organ dysfunction. Thromb Res 2012;129:290–295
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandijck DM, Blot S, De Waele Jan J, Hoste EA, Vandewoude KH, Decruyenaere JM. Thrombocytopenia and outcome in critically ill patients with bloodstream infection. Heart Lung J Acute Crit Care 2010;39:21–26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aydemir H, Piskin N, Akduman D, Kokturk F, Aktas E. Platelet and mean platelet volume kinetics in adult patients with sepsis. Platelets 2012:1–6
   Google Scholar
• Gafter-Gvili A, Mansur N, Bivas A, Zemer-Wassercug N, Bishara J, Leibovici L, Paul M. Thrombocytopenia in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: Risk factors and prognostic importance. Mayo Clin Proc 2011;86:389–396
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hui P, Cook DJ, Lim W, Fraser GA, Arnold DM. The frequency and clinical significance of thrombocytopenia complicating critical illness: A systematic review. Chest 2011;139:271–278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schouten M, Wiersinga WJ, Levi M, van der Poll T. Inflammation, endothelium, and coagulation in sepsis. J Leukoc Biol 2007;83:536–545
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gawaz M, Fateh-Moghadam S, Pilz G, Gurland HJ, Werdan K. Platelet activation and interaction with leucocytes in patients with sepsis or multiple organ failure. Eur J Clin Invest 1995;25:843–851
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gawaz M, Dickfeld T, Bogner C, Fateh-Moghadam S, Neumann FJ. Platelet function in septic multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Intensive Care Med 1997;23:379–385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mavrommatis AC, Theodoridis T, Orfanidou A, Roussos C, Christopoulou-Kokkinou V, Zakynthinos S. Coagulation system and platelets are fully activated in uncomplicated sepsis. Crit Care Med 2000;28:451–457
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogura H, Kawasaki T, Tanaka H, Koh T, Tanaka R, Ozeki Y, Hosotsubo H, Kuwagata Y, Shimazu T, Sugimoto H. Activated platelets enhance microparticle formation and platelet-leukocyte interaction in severe trauma and sepsis. J Trauma 2001;50:801–809
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Russwurm S, Vickers J, Meier-Hellmann A, Spangenberg P, Bredle D, Reinhart K, Lösche W. Platelet and leukocyte activation correlate with the severity of septic organ dysfunction. Shock 2002;17:263–268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters MJ, Heyderman RS, Faust S, Dixon GLJ, Inwald DP, Klein NJ. Severe meningococcal disease is characterized by early neutrophil but not platelet activation and increased formation and consumption of platelet-neutrophil complexes. J Leukoc Biol 2003;73:722–730
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yaguchi A, Lobo FLM, Vincent J-L, Pradier O. Platelet function in sepsis. J Thromb Haemost 2004;2:2096–102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker CE, O'Neill LAJ. Inflammasomes in inflammatory disorders: The role of TLRs and their interactions with NLRs. Semin Immunopathol 2007;29:239–248
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shibazaki M, Nakamura M, Endo Y. Biphasic, organ-specific, and strain-specific accumulation of platelets induced in mice by a lipopolysaccharide from Escherichia coli and its possible involvement in shock. Infect Immun 1996;64:5290–5294
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shibazaki M, Kawabata Y, Yokochi T, Nishida A, Takada H, Endo Y. Complement-dependent accumulation and degradation of platelets in the lung and liver induced by injection of lipopolysaccharides. Infect Immun 1999;67:5186–5191
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Piguet PF, Vesin C, Ryser JE, Senaldi G, Grau GE, Tacchini-Cottier F. An effector role for platelets in systemic and local lipopolysaccharide-induced toxicity in mice, mediated by a CD11a- and CD54-dependent interaction with endothelium. Infect Immun 1993;61:4182–4187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao L, Ohtaki Y, Yamaguchi K, Matsushita M, Fujita T, Yokochi T, Takada H, Endo Y. LPS-induced platelet response and rapid shock in mice: Contribution of O-antigen region of LPS and involvement of the lectin pathway of the complement system. Blood 2002;100:3233–3239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montrucchio G, Bosco O, Del Sorbo L, Fascio Pecetto P, Lupia E, Goffi A, Omede P, Emanuelli G, Camussi G. Mechanisms of the priming effect of low doses of lipopoly-saccharides on leukocyte-dependent platelet aggregation in whole blood. Thromb Haemost 2003;90:872–881
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiraki R, Inoue N, Kawasaki S, Takei A, Kadotani M, Ohnishi Y, Ejiri J, Kobayashi S, Hirata KI, Kawashima S, et al. Expression of Toll-like receptors on human platelets. Thromb Res 2004;113:379–385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cognasse F, Hamzeh H, Chavarin P, Acquart S, Genin C, Garraud O. Evidence of Toll-like receptor molecules on human platelets. Immunol Cell Biol 2005;83:196–198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward JR, Bingle L, Judge HM, Brown SB, Storey RF, Whyte MKB, Dower SK, Buttle DJ, Sabroe T. Agonists of Toll-like receptor (TLR)2 and TLR4 are unable to modulate platelet activation by adenosine diphosphate and platelet activating factor. Thromb Haemost 2005;94:831–838
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andonegui G, Kerfoot SM, McNagny K, Ebbert KVJ, Patel KD, Kubes P. Platelets express functional Toll-like receptor-4. Blood 2005;106:2417–2423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aslam R, Speck ER, Kim M, Crow AR, Bang KWA, Nestel FP, Ni H, Lazarus AH, Freedman J, Semple JW. Platelet Toll-like receptor expression modulates lipopolysaccharide-induced thrombocytopenia and tumor necrosis factor-alpha production in vivo. Blood 2006;107:637–641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ståhl A-L, Svensson M, Mörgelin M, Svanborg C, Tarr PI, Mooney JC, Waktins SL, Johnson R, Karpman D. Lipopolysaccharide from enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli binds to platelets through TLR4 and CD62 and is detected on circulating platelets in patients with hemolytic uremic syndrome. Blood 2006;108:167–176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cognasse F, Lafarge S, Chavarin P, Acquart S, Garraud O. Lipopolysaccharide induces sCD40L release through human platelets TLR4, but not TLR2 and TLR9. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:382–384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark SR, Ma AC, Tavener SA, McDonald B, Goodarzi Z, Kelly MM, Patel KD, Chakrabarti S, McAvoy E, Sinclair GD, et al. Platelet TLR4 activates neutrophil extracellular traps to ensnare bacteria in septic blood. Nat Med 2007;13:463–469
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappelmayer J, Beke Debreceni I, Vida A, Antal-Szalmás P, Clemetson KJ, Nagy B. Distinct effects of Re- and S-forms of LPS on modulating platelet activation. J Thromb Haemost 2013;11:775–778
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cognasse F, Hamzeh-Cognasse H, Lafarge S, Delezay O, Pozzetto B, McNicol A, Garraud O. Toll-like receptor 4 ligand can differentially modulate the release of cytokines by human platelets. Br J Haematol 2008;141:84–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berthet J, Damien P, Hamzeh-Cognasse H, Arthaud C-A, Eyraud M-A, Zéni F, Pozzetto B, McNicol A, Garraud O, Cognasse F. Human platelets can discriminate between various bacterial LPS isoforms via TLR4 signaling and differential cytokine secretion. Clin Immunol 2012;145:189–200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shashkin PN, Brown GT, Ghosh A, Marathe GK, McIntyre TM. Lipopolysaccharide is a direct agonist for platelet RNA splicing. J Immunol 2008;181:3495–3502
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald B, Urrutia R, Yipp BG, Jenne CN, Kubes P. Intravascular neutrophil extracellular traps capture bacteria from the bloodstream during sepsis. Cell Host Microbe 2012;12:324–333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stark RJ, Aghakasiri N, Rumbaut RE. Platelet-derived Toll-like receptor 4 (Tlr-4) is sufficient to promote microvascular thrombosis in endotoxemia. PLoS One 2012;7:e41254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair P, Rex S, Vitseva O, Beaulieu L, Tanriverdi K, Chakrabarti S, Hayashi C, Genco CA, Iafrati M, Freedman JE. Stimulation of Toll-like receptor 2 in human platelets induces a thromboinflammatory response through activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase. Circ Res 2009;104:346–354
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beachey EH, Chiang TM, Ofek I, Kang AH. Interaction of lipoteichoic acid of group A Streptococci with human platelets. Infect Immun 1977;16:649–654
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheu JR, Lee CR, Lin CH, Hsiao G, Ko WC, Chen YC, Yen MH. Mechanisms involved in the antiplatelet activity of Staphylococcus aureus lipoteichoic acid in human platelets. Thromb Haemost 2000;83:777–784
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu B-Q, Zhi M-J, Liu H, Huang J, Zhou Y-Q, Zhang T-T. Inhibitory effects of lipoteichoic acid from Staphylococcus aureus on platelet function and platelet-monocyte aggregation. Inflamm Res 2011;60:775–782
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waller AK, Sage T, Kumar C, Carr T, Gibbins JM, Clarke SR. Staphylococcus aureus lipoteichoic acid inhibits platelet activation and thrombus formation via the Paf receptor. J Infect Dis 2013;208:2046–2057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berube B, Wardenburg J. Staphylococcus aureus α-Toxin: Nearly a century of intrigue. Toxins (Basel) 2013;5:1140–1166
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegel I, Cohen S. Action of Staphylococcal toxin on human platelets. J Infect Dis 1964;114:488–502
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bhakdi S, Muhly M, Mannhardt U, Hugo F, Klapettek K, Mueller-Eckhardt C, Roka L. Staphylococcal alpha toxin promotes blood coagulation via attack on human platelets. J Exp Med 1988;168:527–542
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arvand M, Bhakdi S, Dahlbäck B, Preissner KT. Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin attack on human platelets promotes assembly of the prothrombinase complex. J Biol Chem 1990;265:14377–14381
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kraemer BF, Campbell RA, Schwertz H, Franks ZG, Vieira de Abreu A, Grundler K, Kile BT, Dhakal BK, Rondina MT, Kahr WHA, et al. Bacteria differentially induce degradation of Bcl-xL, a survival protein, by human platelets. Blood 2012;120:5014–5020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parimon T, Li Z, Bolz DD, McIndoo ER, Bayer CR, Stevens DL, Bryant AE. Staphylococcus aureus hemolysin promotes platelet-neutrophil aggregate formation. J Infect Dis 2013;208:761–770
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rondina MT, Schwertz H, Harris ES, Kraemer BF, Campbell RA, Mackman N, Grissom CK, Weyrich AS, Zimmerman GA. The septic milieu triggers expression of spliced tissue factor mRNA in human platelets. J Thromb Haemost 2011;9:748–758
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schubert S, Schwertz H, Weyrich AS, Franks ZG, Lindemann S, Otto M, Behr H, Loppnow H, Schlitt A, Russ M, et al. Staphylococcus aureus α-toxin triggers the synthesis of B-cell lymphoma 3 by human platelets. Toxins (Basel) 2011;3:120–133
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson MK, Boese-Marrazzo D, Pierce WA. Effects of pneumolysin on human polymorphonuclear leukocytes and platelets. Infect Immun 1981;34:171–176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane C, Tilley D, Cunningham A, Smolenski A, Kadioglu A, Cox D, Jenkinson HF, Kerrigan SW. Invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae trigger platelet activation via Toll-like receptor 2. J Thromb Haemost 2010;8:2757–2765
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant AE, Bayer CR, Chen RYZ, Guth PH, Wallace RJ, Stevens DL. Vascular dysfunction and ischemic destruction of tissue in Streptococcus pyogenes infection: The role of streptolysin O-induced platelet/neutrophil complexes. J Infect Dis 2005;192:1014–1022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant AE, Chen RY, Nagata Y, Wang Y, Lee CH, Finegold S, Guth PH, Stevens DL. Clostridial gas gangrene. II: Phospholipase C-induced activation of platelet gpIIbIIIa mediates vascular occlusion and myonecrosis in Clostridium perfringens gas gangrene. J Infect Dis 2000;182:808–815
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant AE, Chen RY, Nagata Y, Wang Y, Lee CH, Finegold S, Guth PH, Stevens DL. Clostridial gas gangrene. I: Cellular and molecular mechanisms of microvascular dysfunction induced by exotoxins of Clostridium perfringens. J Infect Dis 2000;182:799–807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odumosu O, Nicholas D, Yano H, Langridge W. AB toxins: A paradigm switch from deadly to desirable. Toxins (Basel) 2010;2:1612–1645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obrig TG, Karpman D. 2011. Shiga toxin pathogenesis: Kidney complications and renal failure. In: Mantis NJ, editor. Current topics in microbiology and immunology. Vol. 357. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp 105–136
   Google Scholar
• Cooling LL, Walker KE, Gille T, Koerner TA. Shiga toxin binds human platelets via globotriaosylceramide (Pk antigen) and a novel platelet glycosphingolipid. Infect Immun 1998;66:4355–4366
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karpman D, Papadopoulou D, Nilsson K, Sjögren AC, Mikaelsson C, Lethagen S. Platelet activation by Shiga toxin and circulatory factors as a pathogenetic mechanism in the hemolytic uremic syndrome. Blood 2001;97:3100–3108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorpe CM, Flaumenhaft R, Hurley B, Jacewicz M, Acheson DW, Keusch GT. Shiga toxins do not directly stimulate alpha-granule secretion or enhance aggregation of human platelets. Acta Haematol 1999;102:51–55
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yoshimura K, Fujii J, Yutsudo T, Kikuchi R, Soejima T, Shirahata S, Yoshida S. No direct effects of Shiga toxin 1 and 2 on the aggregation of human platelets in vitro. Thromb Haemost 1998;80:529–530
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Viisoreanu D, Polanowska-Grabowska R, Suttitanamongkol S, Obrig TG, Gear AR. Human platelet aggregation is not altered by Shiga toxins 1 or 2. Thromb Res 2000;98:403–410
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramachandran G. Gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial toxins in sepsis: A brief review. Virulence 2014;5:213–218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kau J-H, Sun D-S, Tsai W-J, Shyu H-F, Huang H-H, Lin H-C, Chang HH. Antiplatelet activities of anthrax lethal toxin are associated with suppressed p42/44 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in the platelets. J Infect Dis 2005;192:1465–1474
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chauncey KM, Szarowicz SE, Sidhu GS, During RL, Southwick FS. Anthrax lethal and edema toxins fail to directly impair human platelet function. J Infect Dis 2012;205:453–457
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Locht C, Coutte L, Mielcarek N. The ins and outs of pertussis toxin. FEBS J 2011;278:4668–4682
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banga HS, Walker RK, Winberry LK, Rittenhouse SE. Pertussis toxin can activate human platelets. Comparative effects of holotoxin and its ADP-ribosylating S1 subunit. J Biol Chem 1987;262:14871–14884
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sindt KA, Hewlett EL, Redpath GT, Rappuoli R, Gray LS, Vandenberg SR. Pertussis toxin activates platelets through an interaction with platelet glycoprotein Ib. Infect Immun 1994;62:3108–3114
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brosnahan AJ, Schlievert PM. Gram-positive bacterial superantigen outside-in signaling causes toxic shock syndrome. FEBS J 2011;278:4649–4667
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Haas CJC, Weeterings C, Vughs MM, De Groot PG, Van Strijp JA, Lisman T. Staphylococcal superantigen-like 5 activates platelets and supports platelet adhesion under flow conditions, which involves glycoprotein Ibα and αIIbβ3. J Thromb Haemost 2009;7:1867–1874
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bostanci N, Belibasakis GN. Porphyromonas gingivalis: An invasive and evasive opportunistic oral pathogen. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2012;333:1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papapanagiotou D, Nicu EA, Bizzarro S, Gerdes VEA, Meijers JC, Nieuwland R, van der Velden U, Loos BG. Periodontitis is associated with platelet activation. Atherosclerosis 2009;202:605–611
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assinger A, Laky M, Schabbauer G, Hirschl AM, Buchberger E, Binder BR, Volf I. Efficient phagocytosis of periodontopathogens by neutrophils requires plasma factors, platelets and TLR2. J Thromb Haemost 2011;9:799–809
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis MA, Macey M, Slaney JM, Howells GL. Platelet activation by Protease I of Porphyromonas gingivalis W83. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1993;110:167–173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lourbakos A, Yuan YP, Jenkins AL, Travis J, Andrade-Gordon P, Santulli R, Potempa J, Pike RN. Activation of protease-activated receptors by gingipains from Porphyromonas gingivalis leads to platelet aggregation: A new trait in microbial pathogenicity. Blood 2001;97:3790–3797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pham K, Feik D, Hammond BF, Rams TE, Whitaker EJ. Aggregation of human platelets by gingipain-R from Porphyromonas gingivalis cells and membrane vesicles. Platelets 2002;13:21–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ender M, Andreoni F, Zinkernagel AS, Schuepbach RA. Streptococcal SpeB cleaved PAR-1 suppresses ERK phosphorylation and blunts thrombin-induced platelet aggregation. PLoS One 2013;8:e81298
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rivera J, Vannakambadi G, Höök M, Speziale P. Fibrinogen-binding proteins of Gram-positive bacteria. Thromb Haemost 2007;98:503–511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palma M, Shannon O, Quezada HC, Berg A, Flock JI. Extracellular fibrinogen-binding protein, Efb, from Staphylococcus aureus blocks platelet aggregation due to its binding to the alpha-chain. J Biol Chem 2001;276:31691–31697
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shannon O, Flock JI. Extracellular fibrinogen binding protein, Efb, from Staphylococcus aureus binds to platelets and inhibits platelet aggregation. Thromb Haemost 2004;91:779–789
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shannon O, Uekötter A, Flock JI. Extracellular fibrinogen binding protein, Efb, from Staphylococcus aureus as an antiplatelet agent in vivo. Thromb Haemost 2005;93:927–931
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shannon O, Uekotter A, Flock JI. The neutralizing effects of hyperimmune antibodies against extracellular fibrinogen-binding protein, Efb, from Staphylococcus aureus. Scand J Immunol 2006;63:184–190
   Google Scholar
• Bertling A, Niemann S, Holbrook L, Stanley RG, Brodde MF, Pohl S, Schifferdecker T, Roth J, Jurk K, Muller A, et al. Staphylococcal extracellular adherence protein induces platelet activation by stimulation of thiol isomerases. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012;32(8):1979–90
   Google Scholar
• Shannon O, Herwald H, Oehmcke S. 2012. Modulation of the coagulation system during severe streptococcal disease. In: Chhatwal GS, editor. Current topics in microbiology and immunology. Vol. 368. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; pp 189–205
   Google Scholar
• Oehmcke S, Shannon O, Mörgelin M, Herwald H. Streptococcal M proteins and their role as virulence determinants. Clin Chim Acta 2010;411:1172–1180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berge A, Björck L. Streptococcal cysteine proteinase releases biologically active fragments of streptococcal surface proteins. J Biol Chem 1995;270:9862–9867
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herwald H, Cramer H, Mörgelin M, Russell W, Sollenberg U, Norrby-Teglund A, Flodgaard H, Lindblom L, Björck L. M protein, a classical bacterial virulence determinant, forms complexes with fibrinogen that induce vascular leakage. Cell 2004;116:367–379
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordenfelt P, Waldemarson S, Linder A, Mörgelin M, Karlsson C, Malmström J, Björck L. Antibody orientation at bacterial surfaces is related to invasive infection. J Exp Med 2012;209:2367–2381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shannon O, Hertzén E, Norrby-Teglund A, Mörgelin M, Sjöbring U, Björck L. Severe streptococcal infection is associated with M protein-induced platelet activation and thrombus formation. Mol Microbiol 2007;65:1147–1157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjöbring U, Ringdahl U, Ruggeri ZM. Induction of platelet thrombi by bacteria and antibodies. Blood 2002;100:4470–4477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lösche W, Boettel J, Kabisch B, Winning J, Claus RA, Bauer M. Do aspirin and other antiplatelet drugs reduce the mortality in critically ill patients? Thrombosis 2012;2012:1–8
   Google Scholar
• Akinosoglou K, Alexopoulos D. Thrombosis research. Thromb Res 2014;133:131–138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar