309
Views
14
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Social, health and drug use characteristics of primary crack users in three mid-sized communities in British Columbia, Canada

, , , , &
Pages 333-353 | Published online: 30 Jun 2010

Reference

  • Baumer E, Lauritsen J, Rosenfeld R, Wright R. The influence of crack cocaine on robbery, burglary and homicide rates: A cross-city longitudinal analysis. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 1998; 35: 316–340
  • Bennett T, Holloway K, Farrington D. The statistical association between drug misuse and crime: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2008; 13: 107–118
  • Best D, Harris J, Gossop M, Farrell M, Finch E, Noble A, et al. Use of non-prescribed methadone and other illicit drugs during methadone maintenance treatment. Drug and Alcohol Review 2000; 19: 9–16
  • Booth RE, Kwiatkowski CF, Chitwood DD. Sex related HIV risk behaviors: Differential risks among injection drug users, crack smokers, and injection drug users who smoke crack. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2000; 58: 219–226
  • Borders T, Booth B. Rural, suburban, and urban variations in alcohol consumption in the United States: Findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Rural Health 2007; 23: 314–321
  • Boyd S, Johnson J, Moffat B. Opportunities to learn and barriers to change: Crack cocaine use in the Downtown Eastside of Vancouver. Harm Reduction Journal 2008; 5: 1–12
  • Bruggmann P, Falcato L, Dober S, Helbling B, Keiser O, Negro F, et al. Active intravenous drug use during chronic hepatitis C therapy does not reduce sustained virological response rates in adherent patients. Journal of Viral Hepatitis 2008; 15: 747–752
  • Buxton J, Rothon D, Durigon M, Lem M, Tu A, Remple V, et al. Hepatitis C and HIV prevalence using oral mucosal transudate, and reported drug use and sexual behaviours of youth in custody in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Public Health 2009; 100: 121–124
  • Castells X, Casas M, Vidal X, Bosch R, Roncero C, Ramos-Quiroga J, et al. Efficay of central nervous system stimulant treatment for cocaine dependence: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Addiction 2007; 102: 1871–1877
  • CCENDU (2003a). 2002 National report: Drug trends and the Canadian Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use (CCENDU). Ottawa: Canadian centre on substance abuse
  • CCENDU (2003b). Vancouver site report for the Canadian Community Epidemiology Network On Drug Use (CCENDU). Ottawa: Canadian centre on substance abuse
  • Chase Project Team (2005). Community Health and Safety Evaluation (CHASE) project: Final report (Rep. No. http://chase.hivnet.ubc.ca/project/pubdocs/CHASE_Reports/CHASE_Final_Report.pdf). Vancouver: Chase Project Team
  • Corneil T, Kuyper L, Shoveller J, Hogg R, Li K, Spittal P, et al. Unstable housing, associated risk behaviour, and increased risk for HIV infection among injection drug users. Health & Place 2006; 12: 79–85
  • Cross J, Johnson B, Davis WR, Liberty HJ. Supporting the habit: Income generation activities of frequent crack users compared with frequent users of other hard drugs. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2001; 64: 191–201
  • Dalgard O. Follow-up studies of treatment for hepatitis C virus infection among injection drug users. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2005; 40(Suppl 5)336–8
  • Darke S. Self-report among injecting drug users: A review. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1998; 51: 253–262
  • Darke S, Hall W. Heroin overdose: Research and evidence-based intervention. Journal of Urban Health 2003; 80: 189–200
  • Day C, Conroy E, Lowe J, Page J, Dolan K. Patterns of drug use and associated harms among rural injecting drug users: Comparisons with metropolitan injecting drug users. Australian Journal of Rural Health 2006; 14: 120–125
  • DeBeck K, Shannon K, Wood E, Li K, Montaner J, Kerr T. Income generating activities of people who inject drugs. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2007; 91: 50–56
  • DeHovitz J, Kelly P, Feldman J, Sierra M, Clarke L, Bromberg J, et al. Sexually transmitted diseases, sexual behavior, and cocaine use in inner-city women. American Journal of Epidemiology 1994; 140: 1125–1134
  • Dennison S. Substance use disorders in individuals with co-occurring psychiatric disorders. Substance abuse a comprehensive textbook, 4th, J Lowinson, P Ruiz, R Millman, J Langrod. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 2005; 904–912
  • Edlin BR, Irwin KL, Faruque S, McCoy CB, Word C, Serrano Y, et al. Intersecting epidemics: Crack cocaine use and HIV infection among young inner-city young adults. The New England Journal of Medicine 1994; 331: 1422–1427
  • Edlin BR, Kresina TF, Raymond DB, Carden MR, Gourevitch MN, Rich JD, et al. Overcoming barriers to prevention, care, and treatment of hepatitis C in illicit drug users. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2005; 40(Suppl. 5)S276–S285
  • EMCDDA (2007). EMCDDA European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction selected issue 2007–Cocaine and crack cocaine: A growing public health concern. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
  • Falck RS, Wang J, Siegal HA, Carlson RG. The prevalence of psychiatric disorder among a community sample of crack cocaine users: An exploratory study with practical implications. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 2004; 192: 503–507
  • Faruque S, Edlin BR, McCoy CB, Word CO, Larsen SA, Schmid DS, et al. Crack cocaine smoking and oral sores in three inner-city neighborhoods. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 1996; 13: 87–92
  • Fischer B, Allard C. Feasibility study on ‘supervised drug consumption’ options in the City of Victoria. Centre for Addictions Research of BC (CAR-BC), Victoria 2007
  • Fischer B, Chin A, Kuo I, Kirst M, Vlahov D. Canadian illicit opiate users' views on methadone and other opiate prescription treatment: An exploratory qualitative study. Substance Use and Misuse 2002; 37: 495–522
  • Fischer B, Coghlan M. Crack in North American cities: The neglected ‘epidemic’. Addiction 2007; 102: 1340–1341
  • Fischer B, Haydon E, Rehm J, Krajden M, Reimer J. Injection drug use and the hepatitis C virus: Considerations for a targeted treatment approach–The case study of Canada. Journal of Urban Health 2004; 81: 428–447
  • Fischer B, Kendall P, Allard C. The case for a supervised drug consumption site trial in Victoria, British Columbia. BC Medical Journal 2008a; 50: 130–131
  • Fischer B, Monga N, Manzoni P. Differences between co-users of cocaine and crack among Canadian illicit opioid users. Sucht 2005b; 51: 217–224
  • Fischer B, Powis J, Firestone Cruz M, Rudzinski K, Rehm J. Hepatitis C virus transmission among oral crack users: viral detection on crack paraphernalia. European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology 2008b; 20: 29–32
  • Fischer B, Rehm J, Brissette S, Brochu S, Bruneau J, el-Guebaly N, et al. Illicit opioid use in Canada: Comparing social, health and drug use characteristics of untreated users in five cities (OPICAN study). Journal of Urban Health 2005a; 82: 250–266
  • Fischer B, Rehm J, Patra J, Firestone Cruz M. Changes in illicit opioid use profiles across Canada. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2006a; 175: 1–3
  • Fischer B, Rehm J, Patra J, Kalousek K, Haydon E, Tyndall M, et al. Crack across Canada: Comparing crack and non-crack users in a multi-city cohort of opioid and other street drug users. Addiction 2006b; 101: 1760–1770
  • Galea S, Rudenstine S, Vlahov D. Drug use, misuse, and the urban environment. Drug and Alcohol Review 2005; 24: 127–136
  • Garrity TF, Leukefeld C, Carlson RG, Falck RS. Physical health, illicit drug use, and demographic characteristics in rural stimulant users. The Journal of Rural Health 2007; 23: 99–107
  • Gorelick D, Gardner E, Xi Z. Agents in development for the management of cocaine abuse. Drugs 2004; 64: 1547–1573
  • Grabowski J, Shearer J, Merrill J, Negus SS. Agonist-like replacement pharmacotherapy for stimulant abuse and dependence. Addictive Behaviors 2004; 29: 1439–1464
  • Grant BF, Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Chou SP, Dufour MC, Compton W, et al. Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry 2004; 61: 807–816
  • Haydon E, Fischer B. Crack use as a public health problem in Canada–call for an evaluation of ‘safer crack use kits’. Canadian Journal of Public Health 2005; 96: 185–188
  • Health Canada (2004). I-Track: Enhanced surveillance of risk behaviours among injecting drug users in Canada (pilot survey report). Ottawa: Surveillance and Risk Assessment Division, Centre for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Population and Public Health Branch, Health Canada
  • Health Canada (2006). I-Track: Enhanced surveillance of risk behaviours among injecting drug users in Canada–Phase I report. Ottawa: Surveillance and Risk Assessment Division, Centre for Infectious Disease Prevention, Health Canada
  • Hedrich D. European report on drug consumption rooms. European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Lisbon 2004
  • Howard A, Klein R, Schoenbaum E, Gourevitch M. Crack cocaine use and other risk factors for tuberculin positivity in drug users. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2002; 35: 1183–1190
  • Hwang S. Homelessness and health. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2001; 164: 229–232
  • James D. Harm reduction policy background paper. Alberta Alcohol and Drug Abuse Commission (AADAC), Alberta 2007
  • Judd A, Parry J, Hickman M, McDonald T, Jordan L, Lewis K, et al. Evaluation of a modified commercial assay in detecting antibody to hepatitis C virus in oral fluids and dried blood spots. Journal of Medical Virology 2003; 71: 49–55
  • Kaye S, Drake S. Non-fatal cocaine overdose among injecting and non-injecting cocaine users in Sydney, Australia. Addiction 2004; 99: 1315–1322
  • Kerr T, Fairbairn N, Tyndall M, Marsh D, Li K, Montaner J, et al. Predictors of non-fatal overdose among a cohort of polysubstance-using injection drug users. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2007; 87: 39–45
  • Khandor E, Mason K. The street health report 2007, Research bulletin #3: Homelessness & crack use. Street Health, Toronto 2008, (Rep. No. http://www.streethealth.ca/publications.htm)
  • Khantzian EJ. The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 1997; 4: 231–224
  • Kresina TF, Normand J, Khalsa J, Mitty J, Flanigan T, Francis H. Addressing the need for treatment paradigms for drug-abusing patients with multiple morbidities. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2004; 38: S398–S401
  • Kringlen E, Torgersen S, Cramer V. Mental illness in a rural area. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 2006; 41: 173–179
  • Latkin C, Mandell W, Vlahov D, Knowlton A, Oziemkowska M, Celentano D. Self-reported reasons for needle sharing and not carrying bleach among injection drug users in Baltimore, Maryland. Journal of Drug Issues 1995; 25: 865–870
  • Lejuez C, Bornovalova M, Daughters S, Curtin J. Differences in impulsivity and sexual risk behaviour among inner-city crack/cocaine users and heroin users. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2005; 77: 169–175
  • Leonard L, DeRubeis E, Pelude L, Medd E, Birkett N, Seto J. “I inject less as i have easier access to pipes” Injecting, and sharing of crack-smoking materials, decline as safer crack-smoking resources are distributed. International Journal of Drug Policy 2008; 19: 255–264
  • Leonhardt K, Gentile F, Gilbert B, Aiken M. A cluster of tuberculosis among crack house contacts in San Mateo County, California. American Journal of Public Health 1994; 84: 1834–1836
  • Loftis JM, Matthews AM, Hauser P. Psychiatric and substance use disorders in individuals with hepatitis C: Epidemiology and management. Drugs 2006; 66: 155–74
  • Logan TK, Leukefeld C. Sexual and drug use behaviors among female crack users: A multi-site sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2000; 58: 237–245
  • Malchy L, Bungay V, Johnson J. Documenting practices and perceptions of ‘safer’ crack use: A Canadian pilot study. International Journal of Drug Policy 2008; 19: 339–341
  • Manzoni P, Brochu S, Fischer B, Rehm J. Determinants of property crime among illicit opiate users outside of treatment across Canada. Deviant Behaviour 2006; 27: 351–376
  • Maranda M, Han C, Rainone G. Crack cocaine and sex. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 2004; 36: 315–322
  • McElroy P, Rothenberg R, Varghese R, Woodruff R, Minns G, Muth S, et al. A network-informed approach to investigating a tuberculosis outbreak: Implications for enhancing contact investigations. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 2003; 7: S486–S493
  • McMahon J, Tortu S. A potential hidden source of hepatitis C infection among noninjecting drug users. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 2003; 35: 455–460
  • Metsch LR, McCoy CB. Drug treatment experiences: Rural and urban comparisons. Substance Use & Misuse 1999; 34: 763–784
  • Metsch L, McCoy H, McCoy C, Miles C, Edlin B, Pereyra M. Use of health care services by women who use crack cocaine. Women and Health 1999; 30: 35–51
  • Micallef J, Kaldor J, Dore J. Spontaneous viral clearance following acute hepatitis C infection: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Journal of Viral Hepatitis 2006; 13: 34–41
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) (2005). NIDA info facts: Crack and cocaine (Rep. No. http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/cocaine.html). Rockville: NIDA
  • Newbold KB. Problems in search of solutions: Health and Canadian aboriginals. Journal of Community Health 1998; 23: 59–74
  • O'Byrne P, Holmes D. Evaluating crack pipe distribution in Canada: A systems change case study. Addiction Research and Theory 2008; 16: 181–192
  • Ouellet L, Thorpe L, Huo D, Bailey S, Jimenez A, Johnson W, et al. Prevalence and incidence of HIV among out-of-treatment injecting drug users, Chicago 1994–1996. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 2000; 25: 443–450
  • Palepu A, Strathdee SA, Hogg RS, Anis AH, Rae S, Cornelisse PGA, et al. The social determinants of emergency department and hospital use by injection drug users in Canada. Journal of Urban Health 1999; 76: 409–418
  • Pollini R, Brouwer K, Lozada R, Ramos R, Cruz M, Magis-Rodriguez C, et al. Syringe possession arrests are associated with receptive syringe sharing in two Mexico-US border cities. Addiction 2008; 103: 101–108
  • Porter J, Bonilla L. Crack users' cracked lips: An additional HIV risk factor. American Journal of Public Health 1993; 83: 1490–1491
  • Porter J, Bonilla L, Drucker E. Methods of smoking crack as a potential risk factor for HIV infection: Crack smokers' perceptions and behavior. Contemporary Drug Problems 1997; 24: 219–347
  • Robertson E, Sloboda Z, Boyd G, Beatty L, Kozel NE. Rural substance abuse: State of knowledge and issues [NIDA Research Monograph Series 168]. National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD 1997
  • Ross MW, Hwang LY, Zack C, Bull L, Williams ML. Sexual risk behaviours and STIs in drug abuse treatment populations whose drug of choice is crack cocaine. International Journal of STD and AIDS 2002; 13: 769–774
  • Roy E, Haley N, Leclerc P, Boivin JF, Cedras L, Vincelette J. Risk factors for hepatitis C virus infection among street youths. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2001; 165: 557–560
  • Roy KM, Goldberg DJ, Hutchinson S, Cameron SO, Wilson K, MacDonald L. Hepatitis C virus among self declared non-injecting sexual partners of injecting drug users. Journal of Medical Virology 2004; 74: 62–66
  • Scheinmann R, Hagan H, Lelutiu-Weinberger C, Stern R, Des J, Flom PL, et al. Non-injection drug use and Hepatitis C virus: A systematic review. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2007; 89: 1–12
  • Shannon K, Ishida T, Morgan R, Bear A, Oleson M, Kerr T, et al. Potential community and public health impacts of medically supervised safer smoking facilities for crack cocaine users. Harm Reduction Journal 2006; 3: 1–8
  • Shannon K, Rusch M, Morgan R, Oleson M, Kerr T, Tyndall MW. HIV and HCV prevalence and gender-specific risk profiles of crack cociane smokers and dual users of injection drugs. Substance Use & Misuse 2008; 43: 521–534
  • Small D, Drucker E. Return to Galileo? The inquisition of the International Narcotic Control Board. Harm Reduction Journal 2008; 5, available at http://www.harmreductionjournal.com/contents/5/1/16
  • Inc SPSS. SPSS for Windows (Version 15.0) [Computer software]. SPSS Inc, Chicago 2007
  • Steel E, Haverkos H. AIDS and drug abuse in rural America: Policy practice and research briefs. The Journal of Rural Health 1992; 8: 70–73
  • Symington A. Ottawa: Crack pipe program cancelled by city council. HIV/AIDS Policy and Law Review 2007; 12: 29–30
  • Taubes T, Galanter M, Dermatis H, Westreich L. Crack cocaine and schizophrenia as risk factors for PPD reactivity in the dually diagnosed. Journal of Addictive Diseases 1998; 17: 63–74
  • The Canadian Press (2007, December 12). Crack pipe sharing increases Hep C spread: Study. Canada: CTV News
  • Tortu S, McMahon J, Pouget E, Hamid R. Sharing of noninjection drug-use implements as a risk factor for Hepatitis C. Substance Use and Misuse 2004; 39: 211–224
  • Tyndall M, Currie S, Spittal P, Li K, Wood E, O'Shaughnessy M, et al. Intensive injection cocaine use as the primary risk factor in the Vancouver HIV-1 epidemic. AIDS 2003; 17: 887–893
  • Urbanoski K, Rush B, Wild T, Bassani D, Castel S. Use of mental health care services by Canadians with co-occurring substance dependence and mental disorders. Psychiatric Services 2007; 58: 962–969
  • Vicary J, Doebler M, Bridger J, Gurgevich E, Deike R. A community systems approach to substance abuse prevention in a rural setting. The Journal of Primary Prevention 1996; 16: 303–318
  • Villano S, Vlahov D, Nelson K, Cohn S, Thomas D. Persistence of viremia and the importance of long-term follow-up after acute hepatitis C infection. Hepatology 1999; 29: 908–914
  • Wallace JI, Porter J, Weiner A, Steinberg A. Oral sex, crack smoking, and HIV infection among female sex workers who do not inject drugs. American Journal of Public Health 1997; 87: 470
  • Watkins KE, Hunter SB, Wenzel SL, Tu W, Paddock SM, Griffin A, et al. Prevalence and characteristics of clients with co-occurring disorders in outpatient substance abuse treatment. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 2004; 30: 749–764
  • Werb D, Kerr T, DeBeck K, Li K, Montaner J, Wood E (2008) Modeling crack use trends over 10 years in a Canadian setting. Cracked but not broken conference, VancouverCanada, April 18th–20th, 2008
  • Wilkinson M, Crawford V, Tippet A, Jolly F, Turton J, Sims E, et al. Community-based treatment for chronic hepatitis C in drug users: High rates of compliance with therapy despite ongoing drug use. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2009; 29: 29–37
  • Wood E, Spittal PM, Kerr T, Small W, Tyndall MW, O'Shaughnessy MV, et al. Requiring help injecting as a risk factor for HIV infection in the Vancouver epidemic: Implications for HIV prevention. Canadian Journal of Public Health 2003; 94: 355–9

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.