The Ecology and Pathogenicity of Urease-Producing Bacteria in the Urinary Tract

References

• Emmanuel B. Autoregulation of urea cycle by urea in mammalian species. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1981; 70A: 79
   Google Scholar
• Bean E. S., Atkinson D. E. Regulation of the rate of urea synthesis in liver by extracellular pH. J. Biol. Chem. 1984; 259: 1552
   Google Scholar
• Haussinger D., Gerok W. Hepatic urea synthesis and pH regulation. Role of CO2, HCO3-, pH and the activity of carbonic anhydrase. Eur. J. Biochem. 1985; 152: 381
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ballé C., Jungermann K. Control of urea production, glutamine release and ammonia uptake in the perfused rat liver by the sympathetic innervation. Eur. J. Biochem. 1986; 158: 13
   Google Scholar
• Cheng K.-J., Costerton J. W. Adherent rumen bacteria — their role in the digestion of plant material, urea, and epithelial cells, chap 1. Digestive Physiology and Metabolism in Ruminants, Y. Ruckebusch, P. Thivend. MTP Press, LancasterEngland 1980; 227
   Google Scholar
• Cheng K.-J., Irvin R. T., Costerton J. W. Autochthonous and pathogenic colonization of animal tissues by bacteria. Can. J. Microbiol. 1981; 27: 461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costerton J. W., Cheng K.-J. Autochthonous populations: colonization of tissue surfaces by autochthonous bacteria. Microbiology 1982; 1982: 266
   Google Scholar
• Wöhler F. Sur l'acide particulier qui se forme lorsque l'on combine le cyanogene avec les alcalis. Ann. Chim. Phys. 1822; 20: 353
   Google Scholar
• Sumner J. B. The isolation and crystallization of the enzyme urease. J. Biol. Chem. 1926; 69: 435
   Google Scholar
• Dixon N. E., Gazzola C., Blakeley R. L., Zerner B. Jack bean urease (EC 3.5.1.5). A metalloenzyme, A simple biological role for nickel?. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1975; 97: 4131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon N. E., Gazzola C., Blakeley R. L., Zerner B. Metal ions in enzymes using ammonia or amides. Science 1976; 191: 1144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roon R. J., Levenberg B. An adenosine triphosphate-dependent, avidin-sensitive enzymatic cleavage of urea in yeast and green algae. J. Biol. Chem. 1968; 243: 5213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roon R. J., Levenberg B. CO2 fixation and the involvement of allophanate in the biotin-enzyme-catalyzed cleavage of urea. J. Biol. Chem. 1970; 245: 4593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hausinger R. P. Nickel utilization by microorganisms. Microbiol. Rev. 1987; 51: 22
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Riddles P. W., Andrews R. K., Blakeley R. L., Zerner B. Jack bean urease. VI. Determination of thiol and disulfide content. Reversible inactivation of the enzyme by the blocking of the unique cysteine residue. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1983; 743: 115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasnain S. S., Piggott B. An EXAFS study of jack bean urease, a nickel metalloenzyme. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1983; 112: 279
   Google Scholar
• Blakeley R. L., Treston A., Andrews R. K., Zerner B. Nickel (II)-promoted ethanolysis and hydrolysis of N-(2-pyridylmethyl) urea. A model for urease. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1982; 104: 612
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hausinger R. P. Purification of a nickel-containing urease from the rumen anaerobe Selenomonas ruminantium. J. Biol. Chem. 1986; 261: 7866
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schneider J., Kaltwasser H. Urease from Arthrobacter oxydans a nickel-containing enzyme. Arch. Microbiol. 1984; 139: 355
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gould W. D., Hagedorn C., McCready R. G. L. Urea transformation and fertilizer efficiency in soil. Adv. Agron. 1986; 40: 209
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenstein I. J. M., Hamilton-Miller J. M. T. Inhibitors of urease as chemotherapeutic agents. CRC Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 1984; 11: 1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werner E. A. The Chemistry of Urea. Longmans, Green, and Co., London 1923
   Google Scholar
• Granick S. Urease distribution in plants: general methods. Plant Physiol. 1937; 12: 471
   Google Scholar
• McLaren A. D., Peterson G. H. Soil Biochemistry. Marcel Dekker., New York 1967; Vol. 1
   Google Scholar
• Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology8th ed., R. E. Buchanan, N. E. Gibbons. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore 1974
   Google Scholar
• Levenson S. M., Crowley L. V., Horowitz R. E., Malm O. J. The metabolism of carbon-labelled urea in the germ free rat. J. Biol. Chem. 1959; 234: 2061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delluva A. M., Markley K., Davies R. E. The absence of gastric urease in germ-free animals. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1968; 151: 646
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cheng K.-J., Bailey C. B. M., Hironaka R., Costerton J. W. A technique for depletion of bacteria adherent to the epithelium of the bovine rumen. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 1979; 59: 207
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visek W. J. Effects of urea hydrolysis on cell life-span and metabolism. Fed. Proc. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1972; 31: 1178
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Visek W. J. Ammonia: its effects on biological systems, metabolic hormones and reproduction. J. Dairy Sci. 1984; 67: 481
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pillsbury D. M., Rebell G. The bacterial flora of the skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 1952; 18: 173
   Google Scholar
• Sissons C. H., Cutress T. W., Pearce E. I. F. Kinetics and product stoichiometry of ureolysis by human salivary bacteria and artificial mouth plaques. Arch. Oral Biol. 1985; 30: 781
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driessens F. C. M., Borggreven J. M. P. M., Verbeeck R. M. H., van Dijk J. W. E., Feagin F. F. On the physicochemistry of plaque calcification and the phase composition of dental calculus. J. Periodontal Res. 1985; 20: 329
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• John A., Isaacson H. R., Bryant M. P. Isolation and characteristics of a ureolytic strain of Selenomonas ruminantium. J. Dairy Sci. 1974; 57: 1003
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Varel V. H., Bryant M. P., Holdeman L. V., Moore W. E. C. Isolation of ureolytic Peptostreptococcus productus from feces using defined medium. Failure of common urease tests. Appl. Microbiol. 1974; 28: 594
   Google Scholar
• Wozny M. A., Bryant M. P., Holdeman L. V., Moore W. E. C. Urease assay and urease-producing species of anaerobes in the bovine rumen and human feces. Appl. Microbiol. 1977; 33: 1097
   Google Scholar
• Fowler J. E. Bacteriology of branched renal calculi and accompanying urinary tract infection. J. Urol. 1984; 131: 213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soriano F., Ponte C., Santamaria M., Aguado J. M., Wilhelm I., Vela R., Delatte L. C. Coryne-bacterium group D2 as a cause of alkaline-encrusted cystitis: report of four cases and characterization of the organisms. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1985; 21: 788
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffith D. P. Urease stones. Urol. Res. 1979; 7: 215
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McLean R. J. C., Cheng K.-J., Gould W. D., Costerton J. W. Cytochemical localization of urease in a rumen Staphylococcus sp. by electron microscopy. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1985; 49: 253
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedelin H., Grenabo L., Pettersson S. Urease-induced crystallization in synthetic urine. J. Urol. 1985; 133: 529
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedelin H., Grenabo L., Pettersson S. The effects of urease in undiluted human urine. J. Urol. 1986; 136: 743
   Google Scholar
• Griffith D. P., Musher D. M., Itin C. Urease — the primary cause of infection-induced urinary stones. Invest. Urol. 1976; 13: 346
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vermeulen C. W., Lyon E. S. Mechanisms of genesis and growth of calculi. Am. J. Med. 1968; 45: 684
   Google Scholar
• Shepard M. C., Lunceford C. D., Ford D. K., Purcell R. H., Taylor-Robinson D., Razin S., Black F. T. Ureaplasma urealyticum gen. nov., sp. nov.: proposed nomenclature for the human T (T-strain) mycoplasmas. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 1974; 24: 160
   Google Scholar
• Ford D. K., MacDonald J. Influence of urea on the growth of T-strain mycoplasmas. J. Bacteriol. 1967; 93: 1509
   Google Scholar
• Shepard M. C., Lunceford C. D. Occurrence of urease in T strains of Mycoplasma. J. Bacteriol. 1967; 93: 1513
   Google Scholar
• Ford D. K., McCandlish L., Gronlund A. F. Metabolism of 14C-urea by T-strain Mycoplasma. J. Bacteriol. 1970; 102: 605
   Google Scholar
• Masover G. K., Benson J. R., Hayflick L. Growth of T-strain mycoplasmas in medium without added urea: effect of trace amounts of urea and of a urease inhibitor. J. Bacteriol. 1974; 117: 765
   Google Scholar
• Furr P. M., Taylor-Robinson D., Hetherington C. M. The inhibitory effect of flurofamide on ureaplasmas and their elimination from marmosets by its use. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1984; 14: 613
   Google Scholar
• Blazevic D. J., Ederer G. M. Principals of Biochemical Tests in Diagnostic Microbiology. John Wiley & Sons, Baltimore 1975
   Google Scholar
• Smibert R. M., Krieg N. R. General characterization, chap. 20. Manual of Methods for General Bacteriology, P. Gerhardt, R. G. E. Murray, R. N. Costilow, E. W. Nester, W. A. Wood, N. R. Krieg, G. B. Phillips. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. 1981
   Google Scholar
• Christensen W. B. Urea decomposition as a means of differentiating Proteus and paracolon cultures from each other and from Salmonella and Shigella types. J. Bacteriol. 1946; 52: 461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogels G. D., van der Drift C. Degradation of purines and pyrimidines by microorganisms. Bacteriol. Rev. 1976; 40: 403
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kaltwasser H., Kramer J., Conger W. R. Control of urease formation in certain aerobic bacteria. Arch. Mikrobiol. 1972; 81: 178
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bryant M. P. 1983, personal communication
   Google Scholar
• Crociani F., Matteuzzi D. Urease activity in the genus Bifidobacterium. Ann. Microbiol. (Paris) 1982; 133A: 417
   Google Scholar
• Cheng K.-J. 1981, unpublished observations
   Google Scholar
• McLean R. J. C., Nickel J. C. 1984, unpublished observations
   Google Scholar
• Cook A. R. The elimination of urease activity in Streptococcus faecium as evidence for plasmid-encoded urease. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1976; 92: 49
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Farmer J. J., III, Hickman F. W., Brenner D. J., Schreiber M., Rickenbach D. G. Unusual Enterobacteriaceae: “Proteus rettgeri” that “change” into Providencia stuartii. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1977; 6: 373
   Google Scholar
• Grant R. B., Penner J. L., Hennessy J. N., Jackowski B. J. Transferable urease activity in Providencia stuartii. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1981; 13: 561
   Google Scholar
• Mobley H. L. T., Chippendale G. R., Fraiman M. H., Tenney J. H., Warren J. W. Variable phenotypes of Providencia stuartii due to plasmid-encoded traits. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1985; 22: 851
   Google Scholar
• Mobley H. L. T., Jones B. D., Jerse A. E. Cloning of urease gene sequences from Providencia stuartii. Infect. Immun. 1986; 54: 161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mobley H. L. T. 1986, personal communication
   Google Scholar
• Tyler B. Regulation of the assimilation of nitrogen compounds. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1978; 47: 1127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson J. A. Regulation of Ammonia Assimilating Enzymes in the Ruminal Bacteria Selenomonas ruminantium and Succinivibrio dextrinosolvens. Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign 1982
   Google Scholar
• Smith C. J., Hespell R. B., Bryant M. P. Regulation of urease and ammonia assimilatory enzymes in Selenomonas ruminantium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1981; 42: 89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magasanik B., Prival M. J., Brenchley J. E., Tyler B. M., DeLeo A. B., Streicher S. L., Bender R. A., Paris C. G. Glutamine synthetase as a regulator of enzyme synthesis. Curr. Top. Cell. Reg. 1974; 8: 119
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brown M. S., Segal A., Stadtman E. R. Modulation of glutamine synthetase adenylation and deadenylation is mediated by metabolic transformation of die P11-regulatory protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1971; 68: 2949
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pahel G., Zelenetz A. D., Tyler B. M. gltB gene and regulation of nitrogen metabolism by glutamine synthetase in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 1978; 133: 139
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brenchley J. E., Prival M. J., Magasanik B. Regulation of the synthesis of enzymes responsible for glutamate formation in Klebsiella aerogenes. J. Biol. Chem. 1973; 248: 6122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adler S. P., Purich D., Stadtman E. R. Cascade control of Escherichia coli glutamine synthetase. J. Biol. Chem. 1975; 250: 6264
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senior P. J. Regulation of nitrogen metabolism in Escherichia coli and Klebsiella aerogenes: studies with the continuous-culture technique. J. Bacteriol. 1975; 123: 407
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg R. B., Hanau R. Relation between the adenylation state of glutamine synthetase and the expression of other genes involved in nitrogen metabolism. J. Bacteriol. 1979; 137: 1282
   Google Scholar
• Friedrich B., Magnasanick B. Urease of Klebsiella aerogenes: control of its synthesis by glutamine synthetase. J. Bacteriol. 1977; 131: 446
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen D. B., Herst P. M., Joosten H. M. L. J., van der Drift C. Nitrogen control in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a role for glutamine in the regulation of the synthesis of NADP-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase, urease, and histidase. Arch. Microbiol. 1981; 128: 398
   Google Scholar
• Brenner D. J., Farmer J. J., III, Fanning G. R., Steigerwalt A. G., Klykken P., Wathen H. G., Hickman F. W., Ewing W. H. Deoxyribonucleic acid relatedness of Proteus and Providencia species. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 1978; 28: 269
   Google Scholar
• Magaria-Plaza I., Ruiz-Herrera J. Mechanisms of regulation of urease biosynthesis in Proteus rettgeri. J. Bacteriol. 1967; 93: 1294
   Google Scholar
• Rosenstein I., Hamilton-Miller J. M. T., Brumfitt W. The effect of acetohydroxamic acid on the induction of bacterial ureases. Invest. Urol. 1980; 18: 112
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zorn C., Dietrich R., Kaltwasser H. Regulation by repression of urease biosynthesis in Proteus rettgeri. Z. Allg. Mikrobiol. 1982; 22: 197
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perrie W. T., Webb D. M. The correlation of light and electron microscope observations. J. Microsc. 1983; 130: 73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holt S. C., Beveridge T. J. Electron microscopy: its development and application to microbiology. Can. J. Microbiol. 1982; 28: 1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costerton J. W. The role of electron microscopy in the elucidation of bacterial structure and function. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1979; 33: 459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan R., Lian C. J., Costerton J. W., Acres S. D. The use of specific antibodies to demonstrate the glycocalyx and spatial relationships of a K99, F41 enterotoxigenic strain of Escherichia coli colonizing the ileum of colostrum-deprived calves. Can. J. Comp. Med. 1983; 47: 150
   Google Scholar
• Done J., Shorey C. D., Loke J. P., Pollak J. K. The cytochemical localization of alkaline phosphatase in Escherichia coli at the electron microscope level. Biochem J. 1965; 96: 27c
   Google Scholar
• Cheng K.-J., Costerton J. W. Localization of alkaline phosphatase in three gram-negative rumen bacteria. J. Bacteriol. 1973; 116: 424
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hall T. A., Gupta B. L. The localization and assay of chemical elements by microprobe methods. Q. Rev. Biophys. 1983; 16: 279
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferris F. G., Beveridge T. J., Fyfe W. S. Iron-silica crystallite nucleation by bacteria in a geothermal sediment. Nature (London) 1986; 320: 609
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granick S. Urease distribution in plants: general methods. Plant Physiol. 1937; 12: 471
   Google Scholar
• Vinther O. Localization of urease activity in Ureaplasma urealyticum cells. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. B 1976; 84: 217
   Google Scholar
• Delisle G. J. Multiple forms of urease in cytoplasmic fractions of Ureaplasma urealyticum. J. Bacteriol. 1977; 130: 1390
   Google Scholar
• Masover G. K., Razin S., Hayflick L. Localization of enzymes in Ureaplasma urealyticum (T-strain Mycoplasma). J. Bacteriol. 1977; 130: 297
   Google Scholar
• Romano N., LaLicata R. Cell fractions and enzymatic activities of Ureaplasma urealyticum. J. Bacteriol. 1978; 136: 833
   Google Scholar
• Swanberg S. L., Masover G. K., Hayflick L. Some characteristics of Ureaplasma urealyticum. Urease activity in a simple buffer: effect of metal ions and sulphydryl inhibitors. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1978; 108: 221
   Google Scholar
• McLean R. J. C., Cheng K.-J., Gould W. D., Nickel J. C., Costerton J. W. Histochemical and biochemical urease localization in the periplasm and outer membrane of two Proteus mirabilis strains. Can. J. Microbiol. 1986; 32: 772
   Google Scholar
• McLean R. J. C., Cheng K.-J., Costerton J. W. Localization of rumen wall-adherent ureolytic bacteria. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 1984, Suppl. 64: 60
   Google Scholar
• McLean R. J. C., Nickel J. C., Beveridge T. J., Costerton J. W. Observations of the ultrastructure of human infected kidney stones. J. Med. Microbiol.
   Google Scholar
• Nickel J. C., Olson M. E., McLean R. J. C., Grant S. K., Costerton J. W. An ecologic study of infected urinary stone genesis in an animal model. Br. J. Urol. 1987; 59: 21
   Google Scholar
• Jones G. A., MacLeod R. A., Blackwood A. C. Ureolytic rumen bacteria I. Characteristics of the microflora from a urea fed sheep. Can. J. Microbiol. 1964; 10: 371
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook A. R. Urease activity in the rumen of sheep and the isolation of ureolytic bacteria. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1976; 92: 32
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Costerton J. W., Cheng K.-J., Geesey G. G., Ladd T. I., Nickel J. C., Dasgupta M., Marrie T. J. Bacterial biofilms in nature and disease. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1987; 41: 435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geesey G. G., Mutch R., Costerton J. W., Green R. B. Sessile bacteria: an important component of the microbial population in small mountain streams. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1978; 23: 1214
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nickel J. C., Ruseska I., Wright J. B., Costerton J. W. Tobramycin resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa growing as a biofilm on urinary catheter material. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1985; 27: 619
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace R. J., Cheng K.-J., Dinsdale D., Ørskov E. R. An independent microbial flora of the epithelium and its role in the ecomicrobiology of the rumen. Nature (London) 1979; 279: 424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill R. R. H. Distribution of urease producing bacteria in the rabbit caecum. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 1983; 13: 61
   Google Scholar
• Nickel J. C., Reid G., Bruce A. W., Costerton J. W. Ultrastructural microbiology of infected urinary stones. Urologia 1986; 28: 512
   Google Scholar
• Nickel J. C., Grant S. K., Costerton J. W. Catheter associated bacteriuria. An experimental study. Invest. Urol. 1985; 26: 369
   Google Scholar
• Czerkawski J. W. Microbial fermentation in the rumen. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 1984; 43: 101
   Google Scholar
• Vermeulen C. W., Lyon E. S., Gill W. B. Artificial urinary concretions. Invest. Urol. 1964; 1: 370
   Google Scholar
• McLean R. J. C., Nickel J. C., Noakes V. C., Costerton J. W. An in vitro ultrastructural study of infectious kidney stone genesis. Infect. Immun. 1985; 49: 805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr M. E. J., Mann S. O., Richardson A. J., Stewart C. S., Wallace R. J. Establishment of ureolytic staphylococci in the rumen of gnotobiotic lambs. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1980; 49: 325, 330
   Google Scholar
• Satoh M., Munakata K., Kitoh K., Takeuchi H., Yoshida O. A newly designed model for infection-induced bladder stone formation in the rat. J. Urol. 1984; 132: 1247
   Google Scholar
• Weatherburn M. W. Phenol-hypochlorite reaction for determination of ammonia. Anal. Chem. 1967; 39: 971
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karmali M. A., Williams A., Fleming P. C., Krishnan C., Wood M. M. Use of an ammonia electrode to study bacterial deamination of amino acids with special reference to D-asparagine breakdown by Campylobacters. J. Hyg. 1984; 93: 189
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Deguchi E., Niiyama M., Kagota K., Namioka S. Role of intestinal flora on incorporation of 15N from dietary, 15N-urea, and 15N-diammonium citrate into tissue proteins in pigs. J. Nutr. 1978; 108: 1572
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wrong O. M., Vince A. J., Waterlow J. C. The contribution of endogenous urea to faecal ammonia in man, determined by 15N labelling of plasma urea. Clin. Sci. 1985; 68: 193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engelhardt W. V., Hinderer S., Rechkemmer G., Becker G. Urea secretion into the colon of sheep and goat. Q. J. Exp. Physiol. 1984; 69: 469
   Google Scholar
• McCowan R. P., Cheng K.-J., Costerton J. W. Adherent bacterial populations on the bovine rumen wall: distribution patterns of adherent bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1980; 39: 233
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salter D. N., Smith R. H., Hewitt D. Factors affecting the capture of dietary nitrogen by microorganisms in the forestomachs of the young steer. Experiments with 15N-urea. Br. J. Nutr. 1983; 50: 427
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Takeuchi H., Kobashi K., Yoshida O. Prevention of infected urinary stones in rats by urease inhibitor — a new hydroxamic acid derivative. Invest. Urol. 1980; 18: 102
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kennedy P. M., Milligan L. P. The degradation and utilization of endogenous urea in the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants: a review. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 1980; 60: 205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsberg C. W., Lam K. Use of adenosine 5′-triphosphate as an indicator of the microbiota biomass in rumen contents. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1977; 33: 528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig W. M., Broderick G. A., Ricker D. B. Quantitation of microorganisms associated with the particulate phase of ruminal ingesta. J. Nutr. 1987; 117: 56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minato H., Suto T. Technique for fractionation of bacteria in rumen microbial ecosystems. II. Attachment of bacteria isolated from bovine rumen to cellulose powder in vitro and elution of bacteria attached therefrom. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1978; 24: 1
   Google Scholar
• Cheng K.-J., McCowan R. P., Costerton J. W. Adherent epithelial bacteria in ruminants and their roles in digestive tract function. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1979; 32: 139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCowan R. P., Cheng K.-J., Bailey C. B. M., Costerton J. W. Adhesion of bacteria to epithelial cell surfaces within the reticulorumen of cattle. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1978; 35: 149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehority B. A., Grubb J. A. Bacterial population adherent to the epithelium on the roof of the dorsal rumen of sheep. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1981; 41: 1424
   Google Scholar
• Mead L. J., Jones G. A. Isolation and presumptive identification of adherent epithelial bacteria (”epimural” bacteria) from the ovine rumen wall. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1981; 41: 1020
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mueller R. E., Asplund J. M., Iannotti E. L. Successive changes in the epimural bacterial community of young lambs as revealed by scanning electron microscopy. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1984; 47: 715
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mueller R. E., Iannotti E. L., Asplund J. M. Isolation and identification of adherent epimural bacteria during succession in young lambs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1984; 47: 724
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dinsdale D., Cheng K.-J., Wallace R. J., Goodlad R. A. Digestion of epithelial tissue of the rumen wall by adherent bacteria in infused and conventionally fed sheep. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1980; 39: 1059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng K.-J., Costerton J. W. Microbial adhesion and colonization within the digestive tract. Anaerobic Bacteria in Habitats Other Than Man, E. M. Barnes, G. C. Mead. Blackwell Scientific, London 1986; 239
   Google Scholar
• Rozee K. R., Cooper D., Lam K., Costerton J. W. Microbial flora of the mouse ileum mucous layer and epithelial surface. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1982; 43: 1451
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savage D. C. Indigenous microorganisms associated with mucosal epithelia in the gastrointestinal system. Microbiology 1975, D. Schlessinger. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. 1975; 120
   Google Scholar
• Savage D. C. Microbial ecology of the gastrointestinal tract. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1977; 31: 107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald I. W. The absorption of ammonia from the rumen of sheep. Biochem. J. 1948; 42: 584
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald I. W. The role of ammonia in ruminal digestion of protein. Biochem. J. 1952; 51: 86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Englehardt W. V., Nickel W. Die permeabilitat der pansenwand fur hamstoff antipyrin und wasser. Pfluegers Arch. 1965; 286: 57
   Google Scholar
• Houpt T. R. Transfer of urea and ammonia to the rumen. Physiology of Digestion and Metabolism in the Ruminant, A. T. Phillipson. Oriel Press, Newcastle-Upon-TyneUK 1970; 119
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy P. M. The effects of dietary sucrose and the concentrations of plasma urea in the gastrointestinal tract of cattle. Br. J. Nutr. 1980; 43: 125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy P. M., Milligan L. P. Partition of non-urinary loss of blood urea and sulphate between the rumen and postruminal tract of sheep. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 1977; 36: 55A
   Google Scholar
• Nolan J. V., Stachiw S. Fermentation and nitrogen dynamics in Merino sheep given a low-quality roughage. Br. J. Nutr. 1979; 42: 63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng K.-J., Wallace R. J. The mechanism of passage of endogenous urea through the rumen wall and the role of ureolytic epithelial bacteria in the urea flux. Br. J. Nutr. 1979; 42: 553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czerkawski J. W., Breckenridge G. Distribution and changes in urease (EC 3.5.1.5) activity in rumen simulation technique (RUSITEC). Br. J. Nutr. 1982; 47: 347
   Google Scholar
• Lysons R. J., Alexander T. J. L., Wellstead P. D., Hobson P. N., Mann S. O., Stewart C. S. Defined bacterial populations in the rumens of gnotobiotic lambs. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1976; 94: 257
   Google Scholar
• Heald P. J., Krogh N., Mann S. O., Appleby J. C., Masson F. M., Oxford A. E. A method for direct viable counts of the facultatively anaerobic microflora in the rumen of a sheep maintained on a hay diet. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1953; 9: 207
   Google Scholar
• Jones G. A. Ureolytic rumen bacteria. Urea as a Protein Supplement, M. H. Briggs. Pergammon Press, New York 1967; 111
   Google Scholar
• van Wyk L., Steyn P. L. Ureolytic bacteria in sheep rumen. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1975; 91: 225
   Google Scholar
• Brent B. E., Adepoju A., Portela F. In vitro inhibition of rumen urease with acetohydroxamic acid. J. Anim. Sci. 1971; 32: 794
   Google Scholar
• Chalupa W., Clark J., Opliger P., Lavker R. Ammonia metabolism in rumen bacteria and mucosa from sheep fed soy protein or urea. J. Nutr. 1970; 100: 161
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stewart C. S., Dinsdale D., Cheng K.-J., Paniagua C. The digestion of straw by rumen bacteria. Straw Decay and Its Effects on Utilization and Disposal, E. Grossbard. John Wiley & Sons, ChichesterUK 1979
   Google Scholar
• Engelhardt W. V., Hinderer S., Wiper E. Factors affecting the endogenous urea-N secretion and utilization in the gastro-intestinal tract. Ruminant Digestion and Feed Evaluation, D. F. Osboum, D. E. Beaver, D. J. Thompson. Agricultural Research Council, LondonUK 1978; 4, 1
   Google Scholar
• Gartner K., Decker P., Hill H. Untersuchungen fiber die passage von hamstoff und ammoniak durch die pansenwand von ziegen. Pflugers Archiv. 1961; 274: 281
   Google Scholar
• Harrop C. J. F., Phillipson A. T. Nitrogen metabolism of the ovine stomach I. The transfer of urea from the blood to the rumen. J. Agric. Sci. 1974; 82: 399
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy P. M., Milligan L. P. Transfer of urea from the blood to the rumen of sheep. Br. J. Nutr. 1978; 40: 149
   Google Scholar
• Varady J., Boda K., Havassey I., Bajo M. Passage of endogenous urea nitrogen across the rumen wall in sheep before and after feeding. Physiol. Bohemoslov. 1969; 18: 23
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knutson R. S., Francis R. S., Hall J. L., Moore B. H., Heisinger J. F. Ammonia and urea distribution and urease activity in the gastrointestinal tract of rabbits (Oryoctolagus and Sylvivagus). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1977; 50A: 151
   Google Scholar
• Crociani F., Minardi A., Matteuzzi D., Gioffre F. Bacteries ureolytiques et activité ureasique dans le tube digestif du lapin. Microbiol. Aliment. Nutr. 1985; 3: 83
   Google Scholar
• Forsythe S. J., Parker D. S. Nitrogen metabolism by the microbial flora of the rabbit caecum. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1985; 58: 363
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Slamey T. A., Mihara G. Observations on the growth of urethral and vaginal bacteria in sterile urine. J. Urol. 1980; 124: 461
   Google Scholar
• Leonhardt K. O., Landes R. R. Oxygen tension of the urine and renal tissues. N. Engl. J. Med. 1963; 269: 115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asscher A. W., Sussman M., Waters W. F. Urine as a medium for bacterial growth. Lancet 1966; 2: 1037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaye D. Antibacterial activity of human urine. J. Clin. Invest. 1968; 47: 2374
   Google Scholar
• Weiser R., Asscher A. W., Sussman M. Glycosuria and the growth of urinary pathogens. Invest. Urol. 1969; 6: 650
   Google Scholar
• O'Grady F., Cattell W. R. Kinetics of urinary tract infection. I. Upper urinary tract. Br. J. Urol. 1966; 38: 149
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O'Grady F., Cattell W. R. Kinetics of urinary tract infection. II. The bladder. Br. J. Urol. 1966; 38: 156
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hinman F., Jr. Bacterial elimination. J. Urol. 1968; 99: 811
   Google Scholar
• Hand W. L., Smith J. W., Sanford J. P. The antibacterial effect of normal and infected urinary bladder. J Lab. Clin. Med. 1971; 77: 605
   Google Scholar
• Parsons C. L., Greenspan C., Mulholland S. G. The primary antibacteria defence mechanism of the bladder. Invest. Urol. 1975; 13: 72
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parsons C. L., Mulholland S. G., Anwar H. Antibacterial activity of bladder surface mucin duplicated by exogenous glycosaminoglycan (heparin). Infect. Immun. 1979; 24: 552
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons C. L., Pollen J. J., Anwar H. Antibacterial activity of bladder surface mucin suplicated in the rabbit bladder by exogenous glycosaminoglycans (sodium pentosanpolysulfate). Infect. Immun. 1980; 27: 876
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hicks R. M. The mammalian urinary bladder: an accomodating organ. Biol. Rev. 1975; 50: 212
   Google Scholar
• Orikasa S., Hinman F., Jr. Reaction of the vesical wall to bacterial penetration. Resistance to attachment, desquamation, and leukocytic activity. Invest. Urol. 1977; 15: 185
   Google Scholar
• Akerlund Sohl A., Ahlstedt S., Hanson L. A., Jodal V. Antibody responses in urine and serum against Escherichia coli O antigen in childhood urinary tract infections. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Sect. C 1979; 87: 29
   Google Scholar
• Jodal V., Ahlstedt S., Carlsson B., Hanson L. A., Lindberg V., Akerlund Sohl A. Local antibodies in childhood urinary tract infection: a preliminary study. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. 1974; 47: 537
   Google Scholar
• Svanborg Edén C., Svennerholm A. M. Secretory IgA and IgG antibodies prevent adhesions of E. coli to human urinary tract epithelial cells. Infect. Immun. 1978; 22: 790
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uehling D. T., Mizutani K., Balish E. Effect of immunization on bacterial adherence to urothelium. Invest. Urol. 1978; 16: 145
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pazin G. J., Braude A. I. Immobilizing antibodies in pyelonephritis. J. Immunol. 1969; 102: 1454
   Google Scholar
• Targowski S. P., Klucinski W., Babiker S., Nonnecke B. J. Effect of ammonia on in vivo and in vitro immune response. Infect. Immun. 1984; 43: 289
   Google Scholar
• Hjelm E. M. Local cellular immune response in ascending urinary tract infection: occurrence of T-cells, immunoglobulin-producing cells and Ia-expressing cells. Infect. Immun. 1984; 44: 627
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverblatt F. J. Host factors in urinary tract infection. Can. J. Microbiol., submitted
   Google Scholar
• Kuriyama S. M., Silverblatt F. J. Effect of Tamm-Horsfall urinary glycoprotein of phagocytosis and killing of type 1-fimbriated Escherichia coli. Infect. Immun. 1986; 51: 193
   Google Scholar
• Shand G. H., Anwar H., Kadurugamuwa J., Brown M. R. W., Silverman S. H., Melling J. In vivo evidence that bacteria in urinary tract infection grow under iron-restricted conditions. Infect. Immun. 1985; 48: 35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stamey T. A. Pathogenesis and Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections2nd ed. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore 1980
   Google Scholar
• Kunin C. M. Detection, Prevention, and Management of Urinary Tract Infections4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia 1987
   Google Scholar
• Kaye D. Host defense mechanisms in the urinary tract. The Urologic Clinics of North America, C. E. Cox. W. B. Saunders, TorontoCanada 1975; Vol. 2: 407
   Google Scholar
• Marrie T. J., Harding G. K. M., Ronald A. R. Anaerobic and aerobic urethral flora in healthy females. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1978; 8: 67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marrie T. J., Swantee C. A., Hartlen M. Aerobic and anaerobic urethral flora of healthy females in various physiological age groups and of females with urinary tract infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1980; 11: 654
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bollgren I., Kallenius G., Nord C.-E., Winberg J. Periurethral anaerobic microflora of healthy girls. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1979; 10: 419
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bollgren I., Nord C.-E., Pettersson L., Winberg J. Periurethral anaerobic microflora in girls highly susceptible to urinary tract infections. J. Urol. 1981; 125: 715
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot T. S. J., Reed L., Slack R. C. B., Bishop M. C. Bacteriology and ultrastructure of the bladder in patients with urinary tract infections. J. Infect. 1985; 11: 191
   Google Scholar
• Hentges D. J. Role of the intestinal microflora in host defence against infection. Human Intestinal Microflora in Health and Disease, D. J. Hentges. Academic Press, New York 1983; 311
   Google Scholar
• Graham L. L. Composition of the Indigenous Urethral Bacterial Flora and the In Vitro Adherence of Three Bacterial Isolates to Uroepithelial Cells. Ph.D. thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary, AlbertaCanada 1986
   Google Scholar
• Chan R. C. Y., Reid G., Irvin R. T., Bruce A. W., Costerton J. W. Competitive exclusion of uropathogens from human uroepithelial cells by Lactobacillus whole cells and cell wall fragments. Infect. Immun. 1985; 47: 84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fowler J. E., Jr., Latta R., Stanley T. A. Studies of introital colonization in women with recurrent urinary infections. VIII. The role of bacterial interference. J. Urol. 1977; 118: 296
   Google Scholar
• Kallenius G., Winberg J. Bacterial adherence to periurethral epithelial cells in girls prone to urinary tract infections. Lancet 1978; 2: 540
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fowler J. E., Jr., Stamey T. A. Studies of introital colonization in women with recurrent urinary infections. VII. The role of bacterial adherence. J. Urol. 1977; 117: 472
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagberg L., Hull R., Hull S., Falkow S., Freter R., Svanborg Edén C. Contribution of adhesion to bacterial persistence in the mouse urinary tract. Infect. Immun. 1983; 40: 265
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverblatt F. J. Host-parasite interaction in the rat renal pelvis. A possible role for pili in the pathogenesis of pyelonephritis. J. Exp. Med. 1974; 140: 1696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costerton J. W., Irvin R. T., Cheng K.-J. The bacterial glycocalyx in nature and disease. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1981; 35: 299
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverblatt F. J., Ofek I. Influence of pili on the virulence of Proteus mirabilis in experimental hematogenous pyelonephritis. J. Infect. Dis. 1978; 138: 664
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senior B. W. The special affinity of particular types of Proteus mirabilis for the urinary tract. J. Med. Microbiol. 1979; 12: 1
   Google Scholar
• Savoia D., Martinetto P., Achino A., Pugliese A. Adhesion of Proteus species to various cell types. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1983; 2: 571
   Google Scholar
• Svanborg Edén C., Hull R., Falkow S., Leffler H. Target cell specificity of wild-type E. coli and mutants and clones with genetically defined adhesins. Prog. Food Nutr. Sci. 1983; 7: 75
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hagberg L., Engberg I., Freter R., Lam J., Oiling S., Svanborg Edén C. Ascending, unobstructed urinary tract infection in mice caused by pyelonephritogenic Escherichia coli of human origin. Infect. Immun. 1983; 40: 273
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lomberg H., Larsson P., Leffler H., Svanborg Edén C. Different binding specificities of P. mirabilis compared to E. coli. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 1982, Suppl. 33: 37
   Google Scholar
• Adegbola R. A., Old D. C., Senior B. W. The adhesins and fimbriae of Proteus mirabilis strains associated with high and low affinity for the urinary tract. J. Med. Microbiol. 1983; 16: 427
   Google Scholar
• Svanborg Edén C., Freter R., Hagberg L., Hull R., Hull S., Leffler H., Schoolnik G. Inhibition of experimental ascending urinary tract infection by an epithelial cell-surface analogue. Nature (London) 1982; 298: 560
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan R. C. Y., Bruce A. W., Reid G. Adherence of cervical, vaginal, and distal urethral normal microbial flora to human uroepithelial cells and the inhibition of gram-negative uropathogens by competitive exclusion. J. Urol. 1984; 131: 596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagberg L., Lam J., Svanborg Edén C., Costerton J. W. Interaction of a pyelonephritogenic Escherichia coli strain with the tissue components of the mouse urinary tract. J. Urol. 1986; 136: 165
   Google Scholar
• Fowler J. E., Jr., Stamey T. A. Studies of introital colonization in women with recurrent urinary infections. X. Adhesive properties of Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis: lack of correlation with urinary pathogenicity. J. Urol. 1978; 120: 315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svanborg Edén C., Eriksson B., Hanson L. A. Adhesion of Escherichia coli to human uroepithelial cells in vitro. Infect. Immun. 1977; 18: 767
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown M. R. W., Williams P. The influence of environment on envelope properties affecting survival of bacteria in infections. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1985; 39
   Google Scholar
• Hagberg L., Hull R., Hull S., McGhee J. R., Michalek S. M., Svanborg Edén C. Difference in susceptibility to gram-negative urinary tract infection between C3H/HeJ and C3H/HeN mice. Infect. Immun. 1984; 46: 839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milazzo F. H., Delisle G. J. Immunoglobin A proteases in gram-negative bacteria isolated from human urinary tract infections. Infect. Immun. 1984; 43: 11
   Google Scholar
• Cicmanec J. F., Helmers S. L., Evans A. T. Office practice survey of urease positive bacterial pathogens causing urinary tract infections. Urologia 1980; 16: 274
   Google Scholar
• Krajden S., Fuksa M., Lizewski W., Barton L., Lee A. Proteus penneri and urinary calculi formation. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1984; 19: 541
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warren J. W. Providencia stuartii: a common cause of antibiotic-resistant bacteriuria in patients with long-term indwelling catheters. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1986; 8: 61
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hedelin H., Brorson J.-E., Grenabo L., Pettersson S. Ureaplasma urealyticum and upper urinary tract stones. Br. J. Urol. 1984; 56: 244
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson R. U. Urinary tract infections in compromised hosts. Urol. Clin. N. Am. 1986; 13: 727
   Google Scholar
• Lewi H. J. E., White A., Hutchinson A. G., Scott R. The bacteriology of the urine and renal calculi. Urol. Res. 1984; 12: 107
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCartney A. C., Clark J., Lewi H. J. E. Bacteriological study of renal calculi. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1985; 4: 553
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Warren J. W., Tenney J. H., Hoopes J. M., Muncie H. L., Anthony W. C. A prospective microbiologic study of bacteriuria in patients with chronic indwelling urinary catheters. J. Infect. Dis. 1982; 146: 719
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eddeland A., Hedelin H. Bacterial colonization of the lower urinary tract in women with long-term indwelling catheter. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 1983; 15: 361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breitenbucher R. B. Bacterial changes in the urine samples of patients with long-term indwelling catheters. Arch. Intern. Med. 1984; 144: 1585
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobson S. H., Källenius G., Lins L.-E., Svenson S. B. Symptomatic Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections in Patients With Renal Scarring in Relation to Fecal Colonization With P-Fimbriated E. coli. 86th Annu. Meet. American Society for Microbiology, 1986, Abstract B97
   Google Scholar
• Tori J. A., Kewalramani L. S. Urolithiasis in children with spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 1978—79; 16: 357
   Google Scholar
• Senior B. W., Leslie D. L. Rare occurrence of Proteus vulgaris in faeces: a reason for its rare association with urinary tract infections. J. Med. Microbiol. 1986; 21: 139
   Google Scholar
• Takasaki E. Chronological variation in the chemical composition of upper urinary tract calculi. J. Urol. 1986; 136: 5
   Google Scholar
• CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics66th ed., R. C. Weast. CRC Press, Boca Raton., Fla 1985—86; D163
   Google Scholar
• Blath R. A. Hippocrates (460—377 B.C.). Invest. Urol. 1977; 15: 183
   Google Scholar
• Brown T. R. On the relation between the variety of micro-organisms and the composition of stone in calculous pyelonephritis. JAMA 1901; 36: 1395
   Google Scholar
• Hagar B. H., Magath T. B. The etiology of incrusted cystitis with alkaline urine. JAMA 1925; 85: 1352
   Google Scholar
• Chute R., Suby H. I. Prevalence and importance of urea-splitting bacterial infections of the urinary tract in the formation of calculi. J. Urol. 1940; 44: 590
   Google Scholar
• Rivadeneira M. A., Gonzalez-Lopez J., Ramos-Cormenzana A. Influence of ammonium ions on calcite and struvite formation by Azotobacter in chemically defined media. Folia Microbiol. 1985; 30: 55
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vebelhart D., Wisard M., Véry J. M. Cacul coralliforme et infection urinaire à répétition: un cas de lithiase de newberyite (MgHPO4-3H2O). Schweiz. Med. Wochenschr. 1984; 114: 1689
   Google Scholar
• McLean R. J. C. The Role of Ureolytic Bacteria in Infectious Urinary Stone Production. Ph.D. thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary, AlbertaCanada 1986
   Google Scholar
• Ryall R. L., Hibberd C. M., Mazzachi B. C., Marshall V. R. Inhibitory activity of whole urine: a comparison of urines from stone formers and healthy subjects. Clin. Chim. Acta 1986; 154: 59
   Google Scholar
• Samtoy B., DeBeukelaer M. M. Ammonia encephalopathy secondary to urinary tract infection with Proteus mirabilis. Pediatrics 1980; 65: 294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drayna C. J., Titcomb C. P., Varma R. R., Soergel K. H. Hyperammonemic encephalopathy caused by infection in a neurogenic bladder. N. Engl. J. Med. 1981; 304: 766
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinha B., Gonzales R. Hyperammonemia in a boy with obstructive ureterocle and Proteus infection. J. Urol. 1984; 131: 330
   Google Scholar
• Kuntze J. R., Weinberg A. C., Ahlering T. E. Hyperammonemic coma due to Proteus infection. J. Urol. 1985; 134: 972
   Google Scholar
• Targowski S. P., Klucinski W., Babiker S., Nonnecke B. J. Effect of ammonia on in vivo and in vitro immune response. Infect. Immun. 1984; 43: 289
   Google Scholar
• Millner O. E., Jr., Andersen J. A., Appler M. E., Benjamin C. E., Edwards J. G., Humphrey D. T., Shearer E. M. Flurofamide: a potent inhibitor of bacterial urease with potential clinical utility in the treatment of infection induced urinary stones. J. Urol. 1982; 127: 346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith M. J. V. Hydroxyurea and infected stones. Urologia 1978; 11: 274
   Google Scholar
• Burns J. R., Gauthier J. F. Prevention of urinary catheter incrustations by acetohydroxamic acid. J. Urol. 1984; 132: 455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sim E., Jones A., Stanley L. Acetohydroxamate, a urease inhibitor, inhibits the covalent binding reaction of complement proteins C3 and C4. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1985; 57: 304
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosenstein I. J., Hamilton-Miller J. M., Brumfitt W. Role of urease in the formation of infection stones: comparison of ureases from different sources. Infect. Immun. 1981; 32: 32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senior B. W., Bradford N. C., Simpson D. S. The ureases of Proteus strains in relation to virulence for the urinary tract. J. Med. Microbiol. 1980; 13: 507
   Google Scholar
• MacLaren D. M. The significance of urease in Proteus pyelonephritis: a bacteriological study. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 1968; 96: 45
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacLaren D. M. The significance of urease in Proteus pyelonephritis: a histological and biochemical study. J. Pathol. 1969; 97: 43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musher D. M., Griffith D. P., Yawn D., Rossen R. D. Role of urease in pyelonephritis resulting from urinary tract infection with Proteus. J. Infect. Dis. 1975; 131: 177
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Senior B. W. Proteus morgani is less frequently associated with urinary tract infections than Proteus mirabilis — an explanation. J. Med. Microbiol. 1983; 16: 317
   Google Scholar
• Griffith D. P. Struvite stones. Kidney Int. 1978; 13: 372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westbury E. J. Some observations on the quantitative analysis of over 1000 calculi. Br. J. Urol. 1974; 46: 215
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Griffith D. P., Klein A. S. Infection-induced urinary stones. Stones: Clinical Management of Urolithiasis, R. A. Roth, B. Finlayson. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore 1983; 210
   Google Scholar
• Griffith D. P., Bragin S., Musher D. M. Dissolution of struvite urinary stones. Invest. Urol. 1976; 13: 351
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wojewski A., Zajaczkowski T. The treatment of bilateral staghorn calculi of the kidneys. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 1974; 5: 249
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prien E. L., Frondel C. Studies in urolithiasis. I. The composition of urinary calculi. J. Urol. 1947; 57: 949
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan S. R., Hackett R. L. Identification of urinary stone and sediment crystals by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalyses. J. Urol. 1986; 135: 818
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wandt M. A. E., Pougnet M. A. B. Simultaneous determination of major and trace elements in urinary calculi by microwave-assisted digestion and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometric analysis. Analyst 1986; 111: 1249
   Google Scholar
• CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics66th ed., R. C. Weast. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla 1985—86; F203
   Google Scholar
• Uldall A. Strategies and methods for the analytical investigation of urinary calculi. Clin. Chim. Acta 1986; 160: 93
   Google Scholar
• Prien E. L., Prien E. L., Jr. Composition and structure of urinary stone. Am. J. Med. 1968; 45: 654
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nickel J. C., Emtage J., Costerton J. W. Ultrastructural microbial ecology of infection-induced urinary stones. J. Urol. 1985; 133: 622
   Google Scholar
• Takeuchi H., Takayama H., Konishi T., Tomoyoshi T. Scanning electron microscopy detects bacteria within infection stones. J. Urol. 1984; 132: 67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellström J. The significance of Staphylococci in the development and treatment of renal and ureteral stones. Br. J. Urol. 1938; 10: 348
   Google Scholar
• Rocha H., Santos L. C. S. Relapse of urinary tract infection in the presence of urinary tract calculi: the role of bacteria within the calculi. J. Med. Microbiol. 1969; 2: 372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwata H., Abe Y., Nishio S., Wakatsuki A., Ochi K., Takeuchi M. Crystal-matrix interrelations in brushite and uric acid calculi. J. Urol. 1986; 397
   Google Scholar
• Wickham J. E. A. The matrix of renal calculi, chap. 41. Scientific Foundations of Urology, G. D. Chisholm, D. I. Williams. William Heinemann Medical Books, London 1982
   Google Scholar
• Roberts S. D., Resnick M. I. Glycosaminoglycans content of stone matrix. J. Urol. 1986; 135: 1078
   Google Scholar
• Khan S. R., Finlayson B., Hackett R. L. Agar-embedded urinary stones: a technique useful for studying microscopic architecture. J. Urol. 1983; 130: 992
   Google Scholar
• Boyce W. H. Organic matrix of human urinary concretions. Am. J. Med. 1968; 45: 673
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King J. S., Jr., Boyce W. H. Analysis of renal calculous matrix compared with some other matrix materials and with uromucoid. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1959; 82: 455
   Google Scholar
• Murata K. Acidic glycosaminoglycans in human kidney tissue. Clin. Chim. Acta 1975; 63: 157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wessler E. The nature of the non-ultrafilterable glycosaminoglycans of normal human urine. Biochem. J. 1971; 122: 373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varadi D. P., Cifonelli J. A., Dorfman A. The acid mucopolysaccharides in normal urine. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1967; 141: 103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickham J. E. A. Matrix and the infective renal calculus. Br. J. Urol. 1976; 47: 727
   Google Scholar
• Allen T. D., Spence H. M. Matrix stones. J. Urol. 1966; 95: 284
   Google Scholar
• Rose G. A. Infection stones, chap. 11. Urinary Stones: Clinical and Laboratory Aspects. University Park Press, Baltimore 1982
   Google Scholar
• Robertson W. G., Peacock M., Nordin B. E. C. Inhibitors of the growth and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals in vitro. Clin. Chim. Acta 1973; 43: 31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowyer R. C., Brockis J. G., McCulloch R. K. Glycosaminoglycans as inhibitors of calcium oxalate crystal growth and aggregation. Clin. Chim. Acta 1979; 95: 23
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ryall R. L., Harnett R. M., Marshall V. R. The effect of urine pyrophosphate, citrate, magnesium and glycosaminoglycans on the growth and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals in vitro. Clin. Chim. Acta 1981; 112: 349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts S. D., Resnick M. I. Urinary stone matrix and urinary macromolecules. Urolithiasis and Related Clinical Research, P. O. Schwille, L. H. Smith, W. G. Robertson, W. Vahlensieck. Plenum Press, New York 1985; 911
   Google Scholar
• Nishio S., Abe Y., Wakatsuki A., Iwata H., Ochi K., Takeuchi M., Matsumoto A. Matrix glycosaminoglycan in urinary stones. J. Urol. 1985; 503
   Google Scholar
• Hesse A., Berg W., Bothor C. Scanning electron microscopic investigations on the morphology and phase conversions of uroliths. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 1979; 11: 11
   Google Scholar
• King J. S., Jr., Boyce W. H. In vitro production of simulated renal calculi. J. Urol. 1963; 89: 546
   Google Scholar
• Vermeulen C. W., Ellis J. E., Hsu T.-C. Experimental observations on the pathogenesis of urinary calculi. J. Urol. 1966; 95: 681
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soriano F., Ponte C., Santamaria M., Castilla C., Roblas R. F. In vitro and in vivo study of stone formation by Corynebacterium group D2 (Corynebacterium urealyticum). J. Clin. Microbiol. 1986; 23: 691
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean R. J. C., Nickel J. C., Downey J., Beveridge T. J., Costerton J. W. 1987, unpublished observations
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen H. T., Moreland A. F., Shields R. P. Urolithiasis in ferrets (Mustela putorius). Lab. Anim. Sci. 1979; 29: 243
   Google Scholar
• Klausner J. S., Osborne C. A., Griffith D. P. Canine struvite urolithiasis. Am. J. Pathol. 1981; 102: 457
   Google Scholar
• Ryan C. P., Wolfer J. J. Cystic calculi in four cats. Vet. Med. Sm. Anim. Clin. 1978; 1414
   Google Scholar
• Bovée K. C., Reif J. S., Maguire T. G., Gaskell C. J., Batt R. M. Recurrence of feline urethral obstruction. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1979; 174: 93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson M. E., McLean R. J. C., Nickel J. C., Costerton J. W. 1986, unpublished observations
   Google Scholar
• Vermeulen C. W., Grove W. J., Goetz R., Ragins H. D., Correll N. O. Experimental urolithiasis. I. Development of calculi upon foreign bodies surgically introduced into bladders of rats. J. Urol. 1950; 64: 541
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermeulen C. W., Goetz R. Experimental urolithiasis. VIII. Furadantin in treatment of experimental Proteus infection with stone formation. J. Urol. 1954; 72: 99
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermeulen C. W., Goetz R. Experimental urolithiasis. IX. Influence of infection on stone growth in rats. J. Urol. 1954; 72: 761
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peerbooms P. G., Marian A., Verweij J. J., MacLaren D. M. Urinary virulence of Proteus mirabilis in two experimental mouse models. Infect. Immun. 1982; 36: 1246
   Google Scholar
• Peerbooms P. G. H., Verweij A. M. J. J., MacLaren D. M. Uropathogenic properties of Proteus mirabilis and P. vulgaris. J. Med. Microbiol. 1985; 19: 55
   Google Scholar
• Clerc M., Texier J., Bebear C. Experimental production of bladder calculi in rats by Ureaplasma injection. Ann. Microbiol. (Paris) 1984; 135A: 135
   Google Scholar
• Andersen B. R., Jackson G. G. Pyelitis, an important factor in the pathogenesis of retrograde pyelonephritis. J. Exp. Med. 1961; 114: 375
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotran R. S., Vivaldi E., Zangwill D. P., Kass E. H. Retrograde Proteus pyelonephritis in rats. Am. J. Pathol. 1963; 43: 1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Friedlander A. M., Braude A. I. Production of bladder stones by human T mycoplasmas. Nature (London) 1974; 247: 67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinter L. B., McDonald J., Beeuwkes R., Gittes R. Urolithiasis in rats with diabetes insipidus (Brattleboro strain rats). J. Urol. 1982; 128: 1077
   Google Scholar
• Vermeulen C. W., Goetz R., Ragins H. D., Grove W. J. Experimental urolithiasis. IV. Prevention of magnesium ammonium phosphate calculi by reducing the magnesium intake or by feeding an aluminum gel. J. Urol. 1951; 66: 6
   Google Scholar
• Vermeulen C. W., Ragins H. D., Grove W. J., Goetz R. Experimental urolithiasis. III. Prevention and dissolution of calculi by alteration of urinary pH. J. Urol. 1951; 66: 1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fishbein W. N. Urease inhibitors in the treatment of infection induced stones: some clinical, pharmacologic and clinical considerations. Urolithiasis: Clinical and Basic Research, L. H. Smith, W. G. Robertson, B. Finlayson. Plenum Press, New York 1981; 209
   Google Scholar
• Fishbein W. N. Hydroxamic acids as urease inhibitors for medical and veterinary use. Chemistry and Biology of Hydroxamic Acids, H. Kehl. S. Karger, Basel 1982; 94
   Google Scholar
• Costerton J. W. The etiology and persistence of cryptic bacterial infections: a hypothesis. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1984; 6(Suppl. 3)S608
   Google Scholar
• Ferris F. G., Beveridge T. J. Site specificity of metallic ion binding in Escherichia coli K-12 lipopolysaccharide. Can. J. Microbiol. 1986; 32: 52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mittleman M. W., Geesey G. G. Copper-binding characteristics of exopolymers from a freshwater sediment bacterium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1985; 49: 846
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean R. J. C., Beveridge T. J., in preparation
   Google Scholar
• Speer A. G., Cotton P. B., Costerton J. W., in preparation
   Google Scholar