The epidemiology, pathogenesis, and diagnosis of vulvovaginal candidosis: A mycological perspective

References

• Abbott J. (1995). Clinical and microscopic diagnosis of vaginal yeast infection: a prospective analysis. Ann Emerg Med, 25, 587–91.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Achkar JM, Fries BC. (2010). Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clin Microbiol Rev, 23, 253–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amsel R, Totten PA, Spiegel CA, Chen KCS, Eschenbach DA, Holmes KK. (1983). Nonspecific vaginitis: diagnostic criteria and epidemiologic association. Am J Med, 74, 14–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson MR, Klink K, Cohrssen A. (2004). Evaluation of vaginal complaints. JAMA, 291, 1368–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anson JJ, Allen KD. (1997). Evaluation of CHROMagar Candida medium for the isolation and direct identification of yeast species from the female genitale tract. Br J Biomed Sci, 54, 237–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Antonio MAD, Hawes SE, Hillier SL. (1990). The identification of Lactobacillus species and the demographic and microbiologic characteristics of women colonized by these species. J Infect Dis, 180, 1950–6.
   Google Scholar
• Auger P, Joly J. (1980). Microbial flora associated with Candida albicans vulvovaginitis. Obstet Gynecol, 55, 397–401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babula O, Lazdane G, Kroica J, Ledger WJ, Witkin SS. (2003). Relation between recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis, vaginal concentrations of mannose-binding lectin, and a mannose-binding lectin gene polymorphism in Latvian women. Clin Infect Dis, 37, 733–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barousse MM, Espinosa T, Dunlap K, Fidel P Jr. (2005). Vaginal epithelial cells anti-Candida albicans activity is associated with protection against symptomatic vaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun, 73, 7765–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergmann JJ, Berg AO, Schneeweiss R, Heidrich FE. (1984). Clinical comparison of microscopic and culture techniques in the diagnosis of Candida vaginitis. J Fam Pract, 18, 549–52.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bouchara JP, Declerck P, Cimon B, Planchenault C, de Gentile L, Chabasse D. (1996). Routine use of CHROMagar Candida medium for presumptive identification of Candida yeast species and detection of mixed polyfungal populations. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2, 202–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carroll CJ, Hurley J, Stanley VC. (1973). Criteria for diagnosis of Candida vulvovaginitis in pregnant women. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw, 80, 258–63.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. (1999). Host-pathogen interactions: redefining the basic concepts of virulence and pathogenicity. Infect Immun, 67, 3703–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. (2000). Host pathogen interactions: basic concepts of microbial commensalism, colonisation, infection and disease. Infect Immun, 68, 6511–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control, and Prevention Workowski, KA, Berman SM. (2006). Sexually transmitted diseases treament guidelines. MMWR Recomm Rep, 55, 1–94.
   Google Scholar
• Chaim W. (1997). Fungal vaginitis caused by non-albicans species. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 177, 485–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chatwani AJ, Mehta R, Hassan S, Rahimi S, Jeronis S, Dandolu V. (2007). Rapid testing for vaginal yeast detection: a prospective study. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 196, 309–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong PP, Lee YL, Tan BC, Ng PK. (2003). Genetic relatedness of Candida strains isolated from women with vaginal candidiasis in Malaysia. J Med Microbiol, 52, 657–66.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dan M, Leshem Y, Yeshaya A. (2010). Performance of a rapid yeast in detecting Candida spp. in the vagina. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 67, 52–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Daniels W, Glover DD, Essmann M, Larsen B. (2001). Candidiasis during pregnancy may result from isogenic commensal strains. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol, 9, 65–73.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Donders GG. (2007). Definition and classificiation of abnormal vaginal flora. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol, 21, 355–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donders GG, van Straeten D, Hooft P, De Wet GH. (1992). Detection of Candida cell forms in Pap smears during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 9, 13–8.
   Google Scholar
• Dorrell L, Edwards A. (2002). Vulvovaginitis due to fluconazole resistant Candida albicans following self treatment with non-prescribed triazoles. Sex Transm Infect, 78, 308–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eckert LO. (2006). Acute vulvovaginitis. New Engl J Med, 355, 1244–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckert LO, Hawse SE, Stevens CE, Koutsky LA, Eschenbach DA, Holmes KK. (1998). Vulvovaginal candidiasis: clinical manifestations, risk factors, management algorithm. Obstet Gynecol, 92, 757–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eschenbach DA, Davick PR, Williams BL, Klebanoff SJ, Young-Smith K, Critchlow CM, Holmes KK. (1989). Prevalence of hydrogen-peroxide producing Lactobacillus species in normal women and women with bacterial vaginosis. J Clin Microbiol, 27, 251–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferris DG, Dekle C, Litaker MS. (1996). Women’s use of over-the-counter antifungal medications for gynecologic symptoms. J Fam Pract, 42, 595–600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fidel PL Jr. (2007). History and update on host defense against vaginal candidiasis. Am J Reprod Immunol, 57, 2–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fidel PL Jr, Barousse M, Espinosa T, Ficarra M, Sturvetant J, Martin DH, Quayle AJ, Dunlap K. (2004). An intravaginal live Candida challenge in humans leads to new hypotheses for the immunopathogenesis of vulvovaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun,72, 2939–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fidel PL Jr, Vazquez JA, Sobel JD. (1999). Candida glabrata: review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical disease with comparison to C. albicans. Clin Microbiol Rev, 12, 80–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foxman B, Barlow R, D’Arcy H, Gillespie B, Sobel JD. (2000). Candida vaginitis: self-reported incidence and associated costs. Sex Transm Dis, 27, 230–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freydiére AM, Guinet R, Boiron P. (2001). Yeast identification in the clinical microbiology laboratory: phenotypical methods. Med Mycol, 39, 9–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geiger AM, Foxman B, Gillespie BW. (1995). The epidemiology of vulvovaginal candidiasis among university students. Am J Public Health, 85, 1146–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giraldo PC, Babula O, Gonçalves AK, Linhares IM, Amaral RL, Ledger WJ, Witkin SS. (2007). Mannose-binding lectin gene polymorphism, vulvovaginal candidiasis, and bacterial vaginosis. Obstet Gynecol, 109, 1123–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldacre MJ, Watt B, Loudon N, Milne LJ, Loudon JD, Vessey MP. (1979). Vaginal microbial flora in normal young women. Br Med J, 1, 1450–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guzel AB, Ilkit M, Akar T, Burgut R, Demir SC. (2011). Evaluation of risk factors in patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis and the value of chromID Candida agar versus CHROMagar Candida for recovery and presumptive identification of vaginal yeast species. Med Mycol, 49, 16–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillier SL, Krohn MA, Nugent RP, Gibbs RS. (1992). Characteristics of three vaginal flora patterns assessed by Gram stain among pregnant women. Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 166, 938–44.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hillier SL, Krohn MA, Rabe LK, Klebanoff SJ, Eschenbach DA. (1993). The normal vaginal flora, H2O2-producing lactobacilli, and bacterial vaginosis in pregnant women. Clin Infect Dis, 16, S273–S81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopwood V, Evans EGV, Carney JA. (1985). Rapid diagnosis of vaginal candidosis by latex particle agglutination. J Clin Pathol, 38, 455–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hospenthal DR, Beckius ML, Floyd KL, Horvath LL, Murray KK. (2006). Presumptive identification of Candida species other than C. albicans, C. krusei, and C. tropicalis with the chromogenic medium CHROMagar Candida. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob, 5, 1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ilkit M, Hilmioglu S, Tasbakan M, Aydemir S. (2007). Evaluation of Albicans ID2 and Biggy agar for the isolation and direct identification of vaginal yeast isolates. J Med Microbiol, 56, 762–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kwon-Chung KJ, Wickes BL, Salkin IF, Kotz HL, Sobel JD. (1990). Is Candida stellatoidea disappearing from the the vaginal mucosa? J Clin Microbiol, 28, 600–1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ledger WJ, Polaneczky MM, Yih MC, Jeremias J, Tolbert V, Witkin SS. (2000). Difficulties in the diagnosis of Candida vaginitis. Infect Dis Clin Pract, 9, 66–9.
   Google Scholar
• Ledger WJ, Witkin SS. (2007). Vulvovaginal Infections. Washington: ASM Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lian C, Zhao J, Zhang Z, Liu W. (2004). Genotype of Candida species associated with different conditions of vulvovaginal candidosis. Mycoses, 47, 495–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lisboa C, Costa AR, Ricardo E, Santos A, Azevedo F, Pina-Vaz C, Rodrigues AG. (2011). Genital candidosis in heterosexual couples. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol, 25, 145–51.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lockhart SR, Fritch JJ, Meier SA, Schröppel K, Srikantha T, Galask R, Soll DR. (1995). Colonizing populations of Candida albicans are clonal in origin but undergo microevolution through C1 fragment reorganization as demonstrated by DNA fingerprinting and C1 sequencing. J Clin Microbiol, 33, 1501–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockhart SR, Reed BD, Pierson CL, Soll DR. (1996). Most frequent scenario for recurrent Candida vaginitis is strain maintenance with “substrain shuffling”: demonstration by sequential DNA fingerprinting with probes Ca3, C1, and CARE2. J Clin Microbiol, 34, 767–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowe NK, Neal JL, Ryan-Wenger NA. (2009). Accuracy of the clinical diagnosis of vaginitis compared with a DNA probe laboratory standard. Obstet Gynecol, 113, 89–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macura AB, Voss A, Melchers WJ, Meis JF, Sysło J, Heczko PB. (1998). Characterization of pathogenetic determinants of Candida albicans strains. Zentralbl Bakteriol, 287, 501–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mårdh P-A, Rodrigues A, Genc M, Novikova N, Martinez-de-Oliveira J, Guaschino J. (2002). Facts and myths on recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis: a review of epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, pathogenesis, and therapy. Int J STD AIDS, 13, 522–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mårdh P-A, Novikova N, Stukolava E. (2003). Colonisation of extragenital sites by Candida in women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis. Br J Obstet Gynecol, 110, 934–7.
   Google Scholar
• Marot-Leblond A, Nail-Billaud S, Pilon F, Beucher B, Poulain D, Robert R. (2009). Efficient diagnosis of vulvovaginal candidiasis by use of a new rapid immunochromatography. J Clin Microbiol, 47, 3821–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez RC, Franceschini SA, Patta MC, Quintana SM, Nunes AC, Moreira JL, Anukam KC, Reid G, De Martinis EC. (2008). Analysis of vaginal lactobacilli from healthy and infected Brazilian women. Appl Environ Microbiol, 74, 4539–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsui H, Hanaki H, Takahashi K, Yokoyama A, Nakae T, Sunakawa K, Omura S. (2009). Rapid detection of vaginal Candida species by newly developed immunochromatography test. Clin Vacc Immunol, 16, 1366–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McClelland RS, Richardson BA, Hassan WM, Graham SM, Kiarie J, Baeten JM, Mandaliya K, Jaoko W, Ndinya-Achola JO, Holmes KK. (2009). Prospective study of vaginal bacterial flora and other risk factors for vulvovaginal candidiasis. J Infect Dis, 199, 1883–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendling W, Pinto de Andrade M, Gutschmidt J, Gantenberg R, Presber W, Schönian G. (2000). Strain specificity of yeasts isolated from different locations of women suffering from vaginal candidosis, and their partners. Mycoses, 43, 387–92.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Merson-Davies LA, Odds FC, Malet R, Young S, Riley V, Schober P, Fisk PG. (1991). Quantification of Candida albicans morphology in vaginal smears. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 42, 49–52.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nickerson WJ. (1953). Reduction of inorganic substances by yeasts. I. Extracellular reduction of sulfite by species of Candida. J Infect Dis, 93, 45–56.
   Google Scholar
• Novikova N, Rodrigues A, Mårdh P-A. (2002). Can the diagnosis of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis be improved by use of vaginal lavage samples and cultures on chromogenic agar? Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol, 10, 89–92.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nugent RP, Krohn MA, Hillier SL. (1991). Reliability of diagnosing bacterial vaginosis is improved by a standard method of Gram stain interpretation. J Clin Microbiol, 29, 297–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyirjesy P, Alexander AB, Weitz MV. (2005). Vaginal Candida parapsilosis: pathogen or bystander? Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol, 13, 37–41.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nyirjesy P, Seeney SM, Grody MHT, Jordan CA, Buckley HR. (1995). Chronic fungal vaginitis: the value of cultures. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 173, 820–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyirjesy P, Sobel JD. (2003). Vulvovaginal candidiasis. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am, 30, 671–84.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Odds FC. (1991). Sabouraud(‘s) agar. J Med Vet Mycol, 29, 355–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Odds FC, Bernaerts R. (1994). CHROMagar Candida, a new differential isolation medium for presumptive identification of clinically important Candida species. J Clin Microbiol, 32, 1923–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odds FC, Webster CE, Mayuranathan P, Simmons PD. (1988). Candida concentrations in the vagina and their association with signs and symptoms of vaginal candidiasis. J Med Vet Mycol, 26, 277–83.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okungbowa FI, Isikhuemhen OS, Dede AP. (2003). The distribution of frequency of Candida species in the genitourinary tract among symptomatic individuals in Nigerian cities. Rev Iberoam Micol, 20, 60–3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ozcan K, Ilkit M, Ates A, Turaç-Biçer A, Demirhindi H. (2010). Performance of Chromogenic Candida agar and CHROMagar Candida in recovery and presumptive identification of monofungal and polyfungal vaginal isolates. Med Mycol, 48, 29–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pagano J, Levine JD, Trejo W. (1957–1958). Diagnostic medium for differentiation of species of Candida. Antibiot Ann, 5, 137–43.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pappas PG, Kaufmann CA, Andes D, Benjamin DK Jr, Calandra TF, Edwards JE Jr, Filler SG, Fisher JF, Kullberg BJ, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Reboli AC, Rex JH, Walsh TJ, Sobel JD; Infectious Diseases Society of America. (2009). Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis, 48, 503–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfaller MA, Houston A, Coffmann S. (1996). Application of CHROMagar Candida for rapid screening of clinical specimens for Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Candida krusei, and Candida (Torulopsis) glabrata. J Clin Microbiol, 34, 58–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pike WJ, Clarke J, Lacey CJ, Hunter PA, Evans EG. (1991). Candida cell wall mannan in the vagina and its association with the signs and symptoms of vaginal candidosis. J Med Vet Mycol, 29, 305–12.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pincus DH, Orenga S, Chatellier S. (2007). Yeast identification: past, present, and future methods. Med Mycol, 45, 97–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pirofski LA, Casadevall LA. (2002). The meaning of microbial exposure, infection, colonisation, and disease in clinical practice. Lancet Infect Dis, 2, 628–35.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Redondo-Lopez V, Cook RL, Sobel JD. (1990). Emerging role of lactobacilli in the control and maintenance of the vaginal bacterial microflora. Rev Infect Dis, 12, 856–72.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reed BD, Pierson CL. (1992). Evaluation of a latex agglutination test for the identification of Candida species in vaginal discharge. J Am Board Fam Pract, 5, 375–80.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Richter SS, Galask RP, Messer SA, Hollis RJ, Diekema DJ, Pfaller MA. (2005). Antifungal susceptibilities of Candida species causing vulvovaginitis and epidemiology of recurrent cases. J Clin Microbiol, 43, 2155–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwiertz A, Taras D, Rusch K, Rusch V. (2006). Throwing the dice for the diagnosis of vaginal complaints? Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob, 5, 4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Siegler SL. (1946). A new method for treatment of vaginitis and cervicitis. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 52, 1–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh S, Sobel JD, Bhargava P, Boikov D, Vazquez JA. (2002). Vaginitis due to Candida krusei: epidemiology, clinical aspects, and therapy. Clin Infect Dis, 35, 1066–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel JD. (1985). Epidemiology and pathogenesis of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 152, 924–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel JD. (1999). Vulvovaginitis in healthy women. Compr Ther, 25, 335–46.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sobel JD. (2007). Vulvaginal candidosis. Lancet, 369, 1961–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel JD, Chaim W. (1996). Vaginal microbiology of women with acute recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. J Clin Microbiol, 34, 2497–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel JD, Chaim W. (1997). Treatment of Torulopsis glabrata vaginitis: a retrospective review of boric acid therapy. Clin Infect Dis, 24, 649–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel JD, Faro AS, Force RW, Foxman B, Ledger WJ, Nyirjesy PR, Reed BD. (1998). Vulvovaginal candidiasis: epidemiologic, diagnostic, and therapeutic considerations. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 178, 203–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel JD, Vazquez JA. (1996). Symptomatic vulvovaginitis due to fluconazole-resistant Candida albicans in a female who was not infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis, 22, 726–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel JD, Zervos M, Reed BD, Hooton T, Soper D, Nyirjesy P, Heine MW, Willems J, Panzer H. (2003). Fluconazole susceptibility of vaginal isolates obtained from women with complicated Candida vaginitis: clinical implications. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47, 34–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soll DR, Galask R, Isley S, Rao TV, Stone D, Hicks J, Schmid J, Mac K, Hanna C. (1989). Switching of Candida albicans during successive episodes of recurrent vaginitis. J Clin Microbiol, 27, 681–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spinillo A, Capuzzo E, Gulminetti R, Marone P, Colonna L, Piazzi G. (1997). Prevalence of and risk factors for fungal vaginitis caused by non-albicans species. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 176, 138–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein GE, Sheridan VL, Magee BB, Magee PT. (1991). Use of rDNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms to differentiate strains of Candida albicans in women with vulvovaginal candidiasis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 14, 459–64.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tabrizi SN, Pirotta MV, Rudland E, Garland SM. (2006). Detection of Candida species by PCR in self-collected vaginal swabs of women after taking antibiotics. Mycoses, 49, 523–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tan SW, Mackay A, Warmington J. (2003). A serologic test for vulvovaginal candidiasis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 82, 79–81.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tietz HJ, Hopp M, Schmalreck A, Sterry W, Czaika V. (2001). Candida africana sp. nov., a new human pathogen or a variant of Candida albicans? Mycoses, 44, 437–45.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trama JP, Adelson ME, Raphaelli I, Stemmer SM, Mordechai E. (2005). Detection of Candida species in vaginal samples in a clinical laboratory setting. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol, 13, 63–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vazquez JA, Sobel JD, Demitriou R, Vaihampayan J, Lynch M, Zervos MJ. (1994). Karyotyping of Candida albicans isolates obtained longitudinally in women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. J Infect Dis, 170, 1566–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vermitsky JP, Self MJ, Chadwick SG, Trama JP, Adelson ME, Mordechai E, Gygax SE. (2008). Survey of vaginal-flora Candida species isolates from women of different age groups by use of species-specific PCR detection. J Clin Microbiol, 46, 1501–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vitali B, Pugliese C, Biagi E, Candela M, Turroni S, Bellen G, Donders GG, Brigidi P. (2007). Dynamics of vaginal bacterial communities in women developing bacterial vaginosis, candidiasis, or no infection, analyzed by PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and real-time PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol, 73, 5731–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenjin Q, Yifu S. (2006). Epidemiological study on vaginal Candida glabrata isolated from pregnant women. Scand J Infect Dis, 48, 49–54.
   Google Scholar
• Willinger B, Hillowoth C, Selitsch B, Manafi M. (2001). Performance of Candida ID, a new chromogenic medium for presumptive identification of Candida species, in comparison to CHROMagar Candida. J Clin Microbiol, 39, 3793–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhou X, Westman R, Hickey R, Hansmann MA, Kennedy C, Osborn TW, Forney LJ. (2009). Vaginal microbiota of women with frequent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun, 77, 4130–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar