Trigger Points and Central Modulation—A New Hypothesis

REFERENCES

• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vols. 1, 2. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Mense S, Simons DG: Muscle Pain: Understanding its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, p. 57.
   Google Scholar
• Kiehn O, Eken T: Functional role of plateau potentials in vertebrate motor neurons. Curr Opin Neurobiol 8(6): 746–752, 1998.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hounsgaard J, Hultborn H, Jespersen B, Kiehn O: Intrinsic membrane properties causing a bistable behaviour of α-motoneurones. Exp Brain Res 55(2): 391–394, 1984.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hounsgaard J, Hultborn H, Jespersen B, Kiehn O: Bistability of α-motoneurones in the decerebrate cat and in the acute spinal cat after intravenous 5-hydroxytryptophan. J Physiol 405: 345–367, 1988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett DJ, Hultborn H, Fedirchuk B, Gorassini M: Short-term plasticity in hind limb motoneurons of decerebrate cats. J Neurophysiol 80(4): 2038–2045, 1998.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vierck CJ Jr: Animal models of pain. Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by SB McMahon, M Koltzenburg. Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, p. 176.
   Google Scholar
• Morisset V, Nagy F: Nociceptive integration in the rat spinal cord: Role of non-linear membrane properties of deep dorsal horn neurons. Eur J Neurosci 10(12): 3642–3652, 1998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perrier JF, Alaburda A, Hounsgaard J: Spinal plasticity mediated by postsynaptic L-type Ca2+ channels. Brain Res Rev 40(1–3): 223–229, 2002.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hornby TG, Rymer WZ, Benz EN, Schmit BD: Windup of flexion reflexes in chronic human spinal cord injury: A marker for neuronal plateau potentials? J Neurophysiol 89(1): 416–426, 2003.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fossat P, Sibon I, Le Masson G, Landry M, Nagy F: L-type calcium channels and NMDA receptors: A determinant duo for short-term nociceptive plasticity. Eur J Neurosci 25(1): 127–135, 2007.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Woolf CJ, Salter MW: Plasticity and pain: Role of the dorsal horn. Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by SB McMahon, M Koltzenburg. Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, p. 96.
   Google Scholar
• Alaburda A, Perrier JF, Hounsgaard J: Mechanisms causing plateau potentials in spinal motoneurones. Adv Exp Med Biol 508: 219–226, 2002.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mason P, Escobedo I, Burgin C, Bergan J, Lee JH, Last EJ, : Nociceptive responsiveness during slow-wave sleep and waking in the rat. Sleep 24(1): 32–38, 2001.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dostrovsky JO, Craig AD: Ascending projection systems. Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by SB McMahon, M Koltzenburg. Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, pp. 188, 193, 194.
   Google Scholar
• You HJ, Dahl Morch C, Chen J, Arendt-Nielsen L: Simultaneous recordings of wind-up of paired spinal dorsal horn nociceptive neuron and nociceptive flexion reflex in rats. Brain Res 960(1–2): 235–245, 2003.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, pp. 57–67, 71, 73, 74.
   Google Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, pp. 69–72.
   Google Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, pp. 67–70.
   Google Scholar
• Mense S, Simons DG: Muscle Pain: Understanding its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 2001, p. 232.
   Google Scholar
• Mense S, Simons DG: Muscle Pain: Understanding its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 2001, pp. 237, 256.
   Google Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, pp. 29, 30, 72, 73.
   Google Scholar
• Wall PD, Woolf CJ: Muscle but not cutaneous C-afferent input produces prolonged increases in the excitability of the flexion reflex in the rat. J Physiol 356: 443–458, 1984.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mense S, Simons DG: Muscle Pain: Understanding its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 2001, pp. 146, 152.
   Google Scholar
• Mense S, Simons DG: Muscle Pain: Understanding its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 2001, p. 217.
   Google Scholar
• Mense S, Simons DG: Muscle Pain: Understanding its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 2001, p. 136.
   Google Scholar
• Schaible HG: Basic mechanisms of deep somatic pain. Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by SB McMahon, M Koltzenburg. Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, p. 628.
   Google Scholar
• Levinsson A, Garwicz M, Schouenborg J: Sensorimotor transformation in cat nociceptive withdrawal reflex system. Eur J Neurosci 11(12): 4327–4332, 1999.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baccei M, Fitzgerald M: Development of pain pathways and mechanisms. Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by SB McMahon, M Koltzenburg. Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, pp. 143–145.
   Google Scholar
• Mense S, Simons DG: Muscle Pain: Understanding its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 2001, pp. 159–162.
   Google Scholar
• Le Bars D: The whole body receptive field of dorsal horn multireceptive neurones. Brain Res Rev 40(1–3): 29–44, 2002.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Millan MJ: Descending control of pain. Prog Neurobiol 66: 355–474, 2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almeida TF, Roizenblatt S, Tufik S: Afferent pain pathways: A neuroanatomical review. Brain Res 1000(1–2): 40–56, 2004.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mense S: Nociception from skeletal muscle in relation to clinical muscle pain. Pain 54(3): 241–289, 1993.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pertovaara A, Almeida A: Endogenous pain modulation. Descending inhibitory systems. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 81. Edited by F Cervero, TS Jensen. Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2006, pp. 179–192.
   Google Scholar
• Vanegas H, Schaible HG: Descending control of persistent pain: Inhibitory or facilitatory? Brain Res Rev 46(3): 295–309, 2004.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fields HL, Basbaum AI: Brainstem control of spinal pain-transmission neurons. Ann Rev Physiol 40: 217–248, 1978.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li HS, Monhemius R, Simpson BA, Roberts MHT: Supraspinal inhibition of nociceptive dorsal horn neurones in the anaesthetized rat: Tonic or dynamic? J Physiol 506(2): 459–469, 1998.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, p. 4.
   Google Scholar
• Mason P: Physiological identification of pontomedullary serotonergic neurons in the rat. J Neurophysiol 77(3): 1087–1098, 1997.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lovick TA: The medullary raphe nuclei: A system for integration and gain control in autonomic and somatomotor responsiveness? Exp Physiol 82(1): 31–41, 1997.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mason P: Contributions of the medullary raphe and ventromedial reticular region to pain modulation and other homeostatic functions. Annu Rev Neurosci 24: 737–777, 2001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai YY, Siegel JM: Sensory-motor integration in the medial medulla. Curr Neuropharmacol 3: 115–143, 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Mason P: Ventromedial medulla: Pain modulation and beyond. J Comp Neurol 493: 2–8, 2005.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mason P: Deconstructing endogenous pain modulation. J Neurophysiol 94(3): 1659–1663, 2005.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leung CG, Mason P: Physiological survey of medullary raphe and magnocellular reticular neurons in the anesthetized rat. J Neurophysiol 80(4): 1630–1646, 1998.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foo H, Mason P: Discharge of raphe magnus ON and OFF cells is predictive of the motor facilitation evoked by repeated laser stimulation. J Neurosci 23(5): 1933–1940, 2003.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Potrebic SB, Fields HL, Mason P: Serotonin immunoreactivity is contained in one physiological cell class in the rat rostral ventromedial medulla. J Neurosci 14(3): 1655–1665, 1994.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gao K, Mason P: Serotonergic raphe magnus cells that respond to noxious tail heat are not ON or OFF cells. J Neurophysiol 84(4): 1719–1725, 2000.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gao K, Mason P: Physiological and anatomic evidence for functional subclasses of serotonergic raphe magnus cells. J Comp Neurol 439(4): 426–439, 2001.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gozariu M, Bouhassira D, Willer JC, Le Bars D: The influence of temporal summation on a C-fibre reflex in the rat: Effects of lesions in the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM). Brain Res 792(1): 168–172, 1998.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhuo M, Gebhart GF: Facilitation and attenuation of a visceral nociceptive reflex from the rostroventral medulla in the rat. Gastroenterology 122(4): 1007–1019, 2002.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Urban MO, Gebhart GF: Supraspinal contributions to hyperalgesia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96(14): 7687–7692, 1999.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhuo M, Sengupta JN, Gebhart GF: Biphasic modulation of spinal visceral nociceptive transmission from the rostroventral medial medulla in the rat. J Neurophysiol 87(5): 2225–2236, 2002.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leung CG, Mason P: Physiological properties of raphe magnus neurons during sleep and waking. J Neurophysiol 81(2): 584–595, 1999.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fornal C, Auerbach S, Jacobs BL: Activity of serotonin-containing neurons in nucleus raphe magnus in freely moving cats. Exp Neurol 88(3): 590–608, 1985.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chase MH, Morales FR, Boxer PA, Fung SJ, Soja PJ: Effect of stimulation of the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis on the membrane potential of cat lumbar motoneurons during sleep and wakefulness. Brain Res 386(1–2): 237–244, 1986.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gray BG, Dostrovsky JO: Descending inhibitory influences from periaqueductal gray, nucleus raphe magnus, and adjacent reticular formation. I. Effects on lumbar spinal cord nociceptive and non-nociceptive neurons. J Neurophysiol 49(4): 932–947, 1983.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yu XM, Mense S: Response properties and descending control of rat dorsal horn neurons with deep receptive fields. Neurosci 39(3): 823–831, 1990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Todd AJ, Koerber HR: Neuroanatomical substrates of spinal nociception. Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by SB McMahon, M Koltzenburg. Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, p. 78.
   Google Scholar
• Drew T, Rossignol S: Functional organization within the medullary reticular formation of intact unanesthetized cat. I. Movements evoked by microstimulation. J Neurophysiol 64(3): 767–781, 1990.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mori S, Kawahara K, Sakamoto T, Aoki M, Tomiyama T: Setting and resetting of level of postural muscle tone in decerebrate cat by stimulation of brain stem. J Neurophysiol 48(3): 737–748, 1982.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kiehn O, Erdal J, Eken T, Bruhn T: Selective depletion of spinal monoamines changes the rat soleus EMG from a tonic to a more phasic pattern. J Physiol 492(1): 173–184, 1996.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fornal CA, Martín-Cora FJ, Jacobs BL: “Fatigue” of medullary but not mesencephalic raphe serotonergic neurons during locomotion in cats. Brain Res 1072(1): 55–61, 2006.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li Y, Bennett DJ: Persistent sodium and calcium currents cause plateau potentials in motoneurons of chronic spinal rats. J Neurophysiol 90(2): 857–869, 2003.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, pp. 12, 13.
   Google Scholar
• Van Tulder M, Koes B: Low back pain. Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by SB McMahon, M Koltzenburg. Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, p. 699.
   Google Scholar
• Russell IJ, Bieber CS: Myofascial pain and fibromyalgia syndrome. Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by SB McMahon, M Koltzenburg. Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, p. 671.
   Google Scholar
• Nishizawa S, Benkelfat C, Young SN, Leyton M, Mzengeza S, de Montigny C, : Differences between males and females in rates of serotonin synthesis in human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94(10): 5308–5313, 1997.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arendt-Nielsen L, Henriksson KG: Pathophysiological mechanisms in chronic musculoskeletal pain (fibromyalgia): The role of central and peripheral sensitization and pain disinhibition. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 21(3): 465–480, 2007.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sandrini G, Arrigo A, Bono G, Nappi G: The nociceptive flexion reflex as a tool for exploring pain control systems in headache and other pain syndromes. Cephalalgia 13(1): 21–27, 1993.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Desmeules JA, Cedraschi C, Rapiti E, Baumgartner E, Finckh A, Cohen P, : Neurophysiologic evidence for a central sensitization in patients with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum 48(5): 1420–1429, 2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD,.1999, p. 958.
   Google Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, p. 148.
   Google Scholar
• Bond MR: Psychiatric disorders and pain. Wall & Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by SB McMahon, M Koltzenburg. Elsevier, Churchill, Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA, 2006, p. 261.
   Google Scholar
• Bär KJ, Brehm S, Boettger MK, Boettger S, Wagner G, Sauer H: Pain perception in major depression depends on pain modality. Pain 117(1–2): 97–103, 2005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levinsson A, Luo XL, Holmberg H, Schouenborg J: Developmental tuning in a spinal nociceptive system: Effects of neonatal spinalization. J Neurosci 19(23): 10397–10403, 1999.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gozariu M, Bragard D, Willer JC, Le Bars D: Temporal summation of C-fiber afferent inputs: Competition between facilitatory and inhibitory effects on C-fiber reflex in the rat. J Neurophysiol 78(6): 3165–3179, 1997.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Le Bars D, Dickenson AH, Besson JM: Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC). I. Effects on dorsal horn convergent neurones in the rat. Pain 6(3): 283–304, 1979.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Bars D, Dickenson AH, Besson JM: Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC). II. Lack of effect on non-convergent neurones, supraspinal involvement, and theoretical implications. Pain 6(3): 305–327, 1979.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Broucker T, Cesaro P, Willer JC, Le Bars D: Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls in man. Involvement of the spinoreticular tract. Brain 113(4): 1223–1234, 1990.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yoshimura M, Furue H: Mechanisms for the anti-nociceptive actions of the descending noradrenergic and serotonergic systems in the spinal cord. J Pharmacol Sci 101(2): 107–117, 2006.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Villanueva L, Cadden SW, Le Bars D: Evidence that diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC) are mediated by a final post-synaptic inhibitory mechanism. Brain Res 298(1): 67–74, 1984.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mense S, Simons DG: Muscle Pain: Understanding its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 2001, pp. 253, 265.
   Google Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, pp. 19, 20, 102, 108.
   Google Scholar
• Mense S, Simons DG: Muscle Pain: Understanding its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 2001, p. 271.
   Google Scholar
• Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS: Travell & Simons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol 1. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1999, p. 172.
   Google Scholar
• Ostelo RW, Deyo RA, Stratford P, Waddell G, Croft P, Von Korff M, : Interpreting change scores for pain and functional status in low back pain. Towards international consensus regarding minimal important change. Spine 33(1): 90–94, 2008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roland M, Fairbank J: The Roland-Morris disability questionnaire and the Oswestry disability questionnaire. Spine 25(24): 3115–3124, 2000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar