Hazardous components and health effects of atmospheric aerosol particles: reactive oxygen species, soot, polycyclic aromatic compounds and allergenic proteins

References

• Andreae MO, Crutzen PJ. Atmospheric aerosols: Biogeochemical sources and role in atmospheric chemistry. Science 1997;276:1052–1058.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pöschl U. Atmospheric aerosols: Composition, transformation, climate and health effects. Angew Chem-Int Edit 2005;44:7520–7540.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nel A. Air pollution-related illness: Effects of particles. Science 2005; 308:804–806.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finlayson-Pitts BJ, Pitts JN. Tropospheric air pollution: Ozone, airborne toxics, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and particles. Science 1997;276:1045–1052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seinfeld JH, Pandis SN. Atmospheric chemistry and physics - From air pollution to climate change, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Hallquist M, Wenger JC, Baltensperger U, Rudich Y, Simpson D, Claeys M, . The formation, properties and impact of secondary organic aerosol: current and emerging issues. Atmos Chem Phys 2009;9:5155–5235.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• George IJ, Abbatt JPD. Heterogeneous oxidation of atmospheric aerosol particles by gas-phase radicals. Nature Chem 2010;2:713–722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finlayson-Pitts BJ, Pitts JN (eds). Chemistry of the upper and lower atmosphere. San Diego, California:Academic Press; 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Crutzen PJ, Lawrence MG, Pöschl U. On the background photochemistry of tropospheric ozone. Tellus Dyn Meteorol Oceanogr 1999;51:123–146.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monks PS, Granier C, Fuzzi S, Stohl A, Williams ML, Akimoto H, . Atmospheric composition change - global and regional air quality. Atmos Environ 2009;43:5268–5350.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kesselmeier J, Staudt M. Biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOC): An overview on emission, physiology and ecology. J Atmos Chem 1999;33:23–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guenther A, Karl T, Harley P, Wiedinmyer C, Palmer PI, Geron C, . Estimates of global terrestrial isoprene emissions using MEGAN (Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature). Atmos Chem Phys 2006;6:3181–3210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oltmans SJ, Lefohn AS Harris JM, Galbally I, Scheel HE, Bodeker G, . Long-term changes in tropospheric ozone. Atmos Environ 2006;40:3156–3173.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanimoto H, Ohara T, Uno I. Asian anthropogenic emissions and decadal trends in springtime tropospheric ozone over Japan: 1998–2007. Geophys Res Lett 2009;36:L23802.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• So KL, Wang T. C3-C12 non-methane hydrocarbons in subtropical Hong Kong: spatial-temporal variations, source-receptor relationships and photochemical reactivity. Sci Total Environ 2004;328:161–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang G, Li X, Wang Y, Xin J, Ren X. Surface ozone trend details and interpretations in Beijing, 2001–2006. Atmos Chem Phys 2009;9:8813–8823.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanimoto H. Increase in springtime tropospheric ozone at a mountainous site in Japan for the period 1998–2006. Atmos Environ 2009;43:1358–1363.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamaji K, Ohara T, Uno I, Tanimoto H, Kurokawa J, Akimoto H, . Analysis of the seasonal variation of ozone in the boundary layer in East Asia using the community multi-scale air quality model: What controls surface ozone levels over Japan? Atmos Environ 2006;40:1856–1868.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurokawa J, Ohara T, Uno I, Hayasaki M, Tanimoto H. Influence of meteorological variability on interannual variations of springtime boundary layer ozone over Japan during 1981–2005. Atmos Chem Phys 2009;9:6287–6304.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshitomi M, Wild O, Akimoto H. Contributions of regional and intercontinental transport to surface ozone in the Tokyo area. Atmos Chem Phys 2011;11:7583–7599.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kondo Y, Takegawa N, Matsui H, Miyakawa T, Koike M, Miyazaki Y, . Formation and transport of aerosols in Tokyo in relation to their physical and chemical properties: A review. J Meteorol Soc Jpn 2010;88:597–624.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauderman WJ, Avol E, Gilliland F, Vora H, Thomas D, Berhane K, . The effect of air pollution on lung development from 10–18 years of age. N Engl J Med 2004;351: 1057–1067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsouyanni K, Touloumi G, Samoli E, Gryparis A, Le Tertre A, Monopolis Y, . Confounding and effect modification in the short-term effects of ambient particles on total mortality: Results from 29 European cities within the APHEA2 project. Epidemiology 2001;12:521–531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope CA, Burnett RT, Thurston GD, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D, . Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution - Epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease. Circulation 2004;109:71–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein JA, Alexis N, Barnes C, Bernstein IL, Nel A, Peden D, . Health effects of air pollution. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004;114:1116–1123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaschen A, D Lang, M Kalberer, M Savi, T Geiser, A Gazdhar, . Cellular responses after exposure of lung cell cultures to secondary organic aerosol particles. Environ Sci Technol 2010;44:1424–1430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nel AE, Diaz-Sanchez D, Ng D, Hiura T, Saxon A. Enhancement of allergic inflammation by the interaction between diesel exhaust particles and the immune system. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;102:539–554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurgueira SA, Lawrence J, Coull B, Murthy GGK, Gonzalez-Flecha B. Rapid increases in the steady-state concentration of reactive oxygen species in the lungs and heart after particulate air pollution inhalation. Environ Health Perspect 2002;110:749–755.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiao GG, Wang MY, Li N, Loo JA, Nel AE. Use of proteomics to demonstrate a hierarchical oxidative stress response to diesel exhaust particle chemicals in a macrophage cell line. J Biol Chem 2003;278:50781–50790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baltensperger U, Dommen J, Alfarra R, Duplissy J, Gaeggeler K, Metzger A, . Combined determination of the chemical composition and of health effects of secondary organic aerosols: The POLYSOA project. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 2008;21:145–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewtas J. Air pollution combustion emissions: Characterization of causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive, and cardiovascular effects. Mutat Res-Rev Mutat Res 2007;636:95–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li N, Sioutas C, Cho A, Schmitz D, Misra C, Sempf J, . Ultrafine particulate pollutants induce oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111:455–460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahn U. What drives the allergic march? Allergy 2000;55: 591–599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krämer U, Behrendt H, Dolgner R, Ranft U, Ring J, Willer H, . Airway diseases and allergies in East and West German children during the first 5 years after reunification: time trends and the impact of sulphur dioxide and total suspended particles. Int J Epidemiol 1999, 28:865–873.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ring J, Kramer U, Schafer T, Behrendt H. Why are allergies increasing? Curr Opin Immunol 2001;13:701–708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behrendt H, Beckert WM. Localization, release and bioavailability of pollen allergens: the influence of environmental factors. Curr Opin Immunol 2001;13:709–715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larrick JW, Buckley CE, Machamer CE, Schlagel GD, Yost JA, Blessingmoore J, . Does hyperimmunoglobulinemia-E protect tropical populations from allergic disease? J Allergy Clin Immunol 1983;71:184–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinrich J, Popescu MA, Wjst M, Goldstein IF, Wichmann HE. Atopy in children and parental social class. Am J Public Health 1998;88:1319–1324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olesen AB, Juul S, Birkebaek N, Thestrup-Pedersen K. Association between atopic dermatitis and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a case-control study. Lancet 2001;357: 1749–1752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ring J, Eberlein-Koenig B, Behrendt H. Environmental pollution and allergy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2001;87: 2–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coca AF, Cooke RA. On the classification of the phenomena of hypersensitiveness. J Immunol 1923;8:163–182.
   Google Scholar
• Saxon A, Diaz-Sanchez D. Air pollution and allergy: you are what you breathe. Nat Immunol 2005;6:223–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssen NAH, Brunekreef B, van Vliet P, Aarts F, Meliefste K, Harssema H, . The relationship between air pollution from heavy traffic and allergic sensitization, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, and respiratory symptoms in Dutch schoolchildren. Environ Health Perspect 2003;111: 1512–1518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunekreef B, Sunyer J. Asthma, rhinitis and air pollution: is traffic to blame? Eur Respir J 2003;21:913–915.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miguel AG, Cass GR, Glovsky MM, Weiss J. Allergens in paved road dust and airborne particles. Environ Sci Technol 1999;33:4159–4168.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apel K, Hirt H. Reactive oxygen species: Metabolism, oxidative stress, and signal transduction. Annu Rev Plant Biol 2004;55:373–399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkel T, Holbrook NJ. Oxidants, oxidative stress and the biology of ageing. Nature 2000;408:239–247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkatachari P, Hopke PK. Development and evaluation of a particle-bound reactive oxygen species generator. J Aerosol Sci 2008;39:168–174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiraiwa M, Sosedova Y, Rouviere A, Yang H, Zhang Y, Abbatt JPD, . The role of long-lived reactive oxygen intermediates in the reaction of ozone with aerosol particles. Nature Chem 2011;3:291–295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasson AS, Paulson SE. An investigation of the relationship between gas-phase and aerosol-borne hydroperoxides in urban air. J Aerosol Sci 2003;34:459–468.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellpointner E, Gab S. Detection of methyl, hydroxymethyl and hydroxyethyl hydroperoxides in air and precipitation. Nature 1989;337:631–634.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olszyna KJ, Meagher JF, Bailey EM. Gas-phase, cloud and rain water measurements of hydrogen-peroxide at a high-elevation site. Atmos Environ 1988;22:1699–1706.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung HF, Wang CS. Experimental determination of reactive oxygen species in Taipei aerosols. J Aerosol Sci 2001;32: 1201–1211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkatachari P, Hopke PK, Grover BD, Eatough DJ. Measurement of particle-bound reactive oxygen species in Rubidoux aerosols. J Atmos Chem 2005;50:49–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkatachari P, Hopke PK, Brune WH, Ren X, Lesher R, Mao J, . Characterization of wintertime reactive oxygen species concentrations in Flushing, New York. Aerosol Sci and Technol 2007;41:97–111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Docherty KS, Wu W, Lim YB, Ziemann PJ. Contributions of organic peroxides to secondary aerosol formed from reactions of monoterpenes with O3. Environ Sci Technol 2005; 39:4049–4059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Q, Liu Y, Donahue NM, Shilling JE, Martin ST. Particle-Phase chemistry of secondary organic material: Modeled compared to measured O:C and H:C elemental ratios provide constraints. Environ Sci Technol 2011;45: 4763–4770.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziemann PJ. Aerosol products, mechanisms, and kinetics of heterogeneous reactions of ozone with oleic acid in pure and mixed particles. Faraday Discuss 2005;130:469–490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surratt JD, Murphy SM, Kroll JH, Ng NL Hildebrandt L, Sorooshian A, . Chemical composition of secondary organic aerosol formed from the photooxidation of isoprene. J Phys Chem A 2006;110:9665–9690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinnig M-C, Warnke J, Hoffmann T. Identification of organic hydroperoxides and hydroperoxy acids in secondary organic aerosol formed during the ozonolysis of different monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes by on-line analysis using atmospheric pressure chemical ionization ion trap mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 2009;23: 1735–1741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maksymiuk CS, Gayahtri C, Gil RR, Donahue NM. Secondary organic aerosol formation from multiphase oxidation of limonene by ozone: mechanistic constraints via two-dimensional heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2009;11:7810–7818.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen X, Hopke PK, Carter WPL. Secondary organic aerosol from ozonolysis of biogenic volatile organic compounds: Chamber studies of particle and reactive oxygen species formation. Environ Sci Technol 2011;45:276–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen X, Hopke PK. A chamber study of secondary organic aerosol formation by limonene ozonolysis. Indoor Air 2010; 20:320–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen X, Hopke PK. Secondary organic aerosol from alpha-pinene ozonolysis in dynamic chamber system. Indoor Air 2009;19:335–345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antonini JM, Clarke RW, Murthy GGK, Sreekanthan P, Jenkins N, Eagar TW, . Freshly generated stainless steel welding fume induces greater lung inflammation in rats as compared to aged fume. Toxicol Let 1998;98:77–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallyathan V, Castranova V, Pack D, Leonard S, Shumaker J, Hubbs AF, . Freshly fractured quartz inhalation leads to enhanced lung injury and inflammation - potential role of free radicals. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152: 1003–1009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallyathan V, Shi XL, Dalal NS, Irr W, Castranova V. Generation of free radicals from freshly fractured silica dust - potential role in acute silica-induced lung injury. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;138:1213–1219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryor WA. Biological effects of cigarette smoke, wood smoke, and the smoke from plastics: the use of electron spin resonance. Free Radical Biol Med 1992;13:659–676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao J, Hopke PK. Concentration of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in mainstream and sidestream cigarette smoke. Aerosol Science and Technology 2012;46:191–197.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryor WA, Hales BJ, Premovic PI, Church DF. The radicals in cigarette tar - their nature and suggested physiological implications. Science 1983;220:425–427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dellinger B, Pryor WA, Cueto R, Squadrito GL, Hegde V, Deutsch WA, . Role of free radicals in the toxicity of airborne fine particulate matter. Chem Res Toxicol 2001; 14:1371–1377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Truong H, Lomnicki S, Dellinger B. Potential for misidentification of environmentally persistent free radicals as molecular pollutants in particulate matter. Environ Sci Technol 2010;44:1933–1939.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azad N, Rojanasakul Y, Vallyathan V. Inflammation and lung cancer: Roles of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2008;11:1–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graedel TE, Weschler CJ. Chemistry within aqueous atmospheric aerosols and raindrops. Rev Geophys 1981;19: 505–539.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stohs SJ, Bagchi D. Oxidative mechanisms in the toxicity of metal ions. Free Radical Biol Med 1995;18:321–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akhtar US, McWhinney RD, Rastogi N, Abbatt JPD, Evans GJ, Scott JA, . Cytotoxic and proinflammatory effects of ambient and source-related particulate matter (PM) in relation to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cytokine adsorption by particles. Inhal Toxicol 2010;22: 37–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamp DW, Graceffa P, Pryor WA, Weitzman SA. The role of free radicals in asbestos-induced diseases. Free Radical Biol Med 1992;12:293–315.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graber ER, Rudich Y. Atmospheric HULIS: How humic-like are they? A comprehensive and critical review. Atmos Chem Phys 2006;6:729–753.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Havers N, Burba P, Lambert J, Klockow D. Spectroscopic characterization of humic-like substances in airborne particulate matter. J Atmos Chem 1998;29:45–54.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin P, Yu JZ. Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species Mediated by Humic-like Substances in Atmospheric Aerosols. Environ Sci Technol 2011;45:10362–10368.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng ML, Ho HY, Huang YW, Lu FJ, Chiu DTY. Humic acid induces oxidative DNA damage, growth retardation, and apoptosis in human primary fibroblasts. Exp Biol Med 2003;228:413–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghio AJ, Stonehuerner J, Pritchard RJ, Piantadosi CA, Quigley DR, Dreher KL, . Humic-like substances in air pollution particulates correlate with concentrations of transition metals and oxidant generation. Inhal Toxicol 1996;8:479–494.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauderly JL, Chow JC. Health effects of organic aerosols. Inhal Toxicol 2008;20:257–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cross CE, van der Vliet A, Louie S, Thiele JJ, Halliwell B. Oxidative stress and antioxidants at biosurfaces: Plants, skin, and respiratory tract surfaces. Environ Health Perspect 1998;106:1241–1251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warren DL, Last JA. Synergestic interaction of ozone and respirable aerosols on rat lungs: 3. ozone and sulfuric acid aerosol. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1987;88:203–216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langebartels C, Wohlgemuth H, Kschieschan S, Grun S, Sandermann H. Oxidative burst and cell death in ozone-exposed plants. Plant Physiol Biochem 2002;40: 567–575.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosson J, Pourazar J, Forsberg B, Adelroth E, Sandstrom T, Blomberg A, . Ozone enhances the airway inflammation initiated by diesel exhaust. Respir Med 2007;101: 1140–1146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitsin SV, Scott GS, Mikheeva T, Zborek A, Kean RB, Brimer CM, . Comparison of uric acid and ascorbic acid in protection against EAE. Free Radical Biol Med 2002;33:1363–1371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman I, Yang SR, Biswas SK. Current concepts of redox signaling in the lungs. Antioxid Redox Signaling 2006;8: 681–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deutsch JC. Ascorbic acid oxidation by hydrogen peroxide. Anal Biochem 1998;255:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simic MG, Jovanovic SV. Antioxidant mechanisms of uric acid. J Am Chem Soc. 1989;111:5778–5782.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballinger CA, Cueto R, Squadrito G, Coffin JF, Velsor LW, Pryor WA, . Antioxidant-mediated augmentation of ozone-induced membrane oxidation. Free Radical Biol Med 2005;38:515–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cvitas T, Klasinc L, Kezele N, McGlynn SP, Pryor WA. New directions: How dangerous is ozone? Atmos Environ 2005;39:4607–4608.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryor WA, Squadrito GL, Friedman M. The cascade mechanism to explain ozone toxicity - The role of lipid ozonation products. Free Radical Biol Med 1995;19:935–941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enami S, Hoffmann MR, Colussi AJ. Acidity enhances the formation of a persistent ozonide at aqueous ascorbate/ozone gas interfaces. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008;105: 7365–7369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enami S, Hoffmann MR, Colussi AJ. Ozone oxidizes glutathione to a sulfonic acid. Chem Res Toxicol 2009;22: 35–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enami S, Hoffmann MR, Colussi AJ. Ozonolysis of uric acid at the air/water interface. J Phys Chem B 2008;112: 4153–4156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim HI, Kim H, Shin YS, Beegle LW, Jang SS, Neidholdt EL, . Interfacial Reactions of ozone with surfactant protein B in a model lung surfactant system. J Am Chem Soc. 2010;132:2254–2263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enami S, Hoffmann MR, Colussi AJ. Simultaneous detection of cysteine sulfenate, sulfinate, and sulfonate during cysteine interfacial ozonolysis. J Phys Chem B 2009;113: 9356–9358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enami S, Hoffmann MR, Colussi AJ. How phenol and alpha-tocopherol react with ambient ozone at gas/liquid Interfaces. J Phys Chem A 2009;113:7002–7010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryor WA. How far does ozone penetrate into the pulmonary air tissue boundary before it reacts? Free Radical Biol Med 1992;12:83–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang Y, Dong Y, Wittlin S, Charman SA, Chollet J, Chiu FCK, . Weak base dispiro-1,2,4-trioxolanes: Potent antimalarial ozonides. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2007;17: 1260–1265.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ricciardolo FLM, Gaston B, Hunt J. Acid stress in the pathology of asthma. J Allergy Clinical Immunol 2004; 113:610–619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paget-Brown AO, Ngaintrakulpanit L, Smith A, Bunyan D, Hom S, Nguyen A, . Normative data for pH of exhaled breath condensate. Chest 2006;129:426–430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homann KH. Fullerenes and soot formation - New pathways to large particles in flames. Angew Chem-Int Edit 1998;37:2435–2451.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messerer A, Rothe D, Niessner R, Pöschl U. Kinetic observations and model calculations on continuous regeneration of NFZ diesel carbon particle precipitation systems. Chemie Ingenieur Technik 2005;77:881–886.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadezky A, Muckenhuber H, Grothe H, Niessner R, Pöschl U. Raman microspectroscopy of soot and related carbonaceous materials: Spectral analysis and structural information. Carbon 2005;43:1731–1742.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumagai Y, Arimoto T, Shinyashiki M, Shimojo N, Nakai Y, Yoshikawa T, . Generation of reactive oxygen species during interaction of diesel exhaust particle components with NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase and involvement of the bioactivation in the DNA damage. Free Radical Biol Med 1997;22:479–487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McWhinney RD, Gao SS, Zhou S, Abbatt JPD. Evaluation of the effects of ozone oxidation on redox-cycling activity of two-stroke engine exhaust particles. Environ Sci Technol 2011;45:2131–2136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshikawa T, Ruhr LP, Flory W, Giamalva D, Church DF, Pryor WA, . Toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. 1. Effect of phenanthrene, pyrene, and their ozonized products on blood chemistry in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1985;79:218–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pöschl U. Formation and decomposition of hazardous chemical components contained in atmospheric aerosol particles. J Aerosol Med 2002;15:203–212.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kumagai Y, Shinkai Y, Miura T, Cho AK. The chemical biology of naphthoquinones and its environmental implications. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2012;52:221–247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitts JN. Formation and fate of gaseous and particulate mutagens and carcinogens in real and simulated atmospheres. Environ Health Perspect 1983;47:115–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitts JN, Lokensgard DM, Ripley PS, Vancauwenberghe KA, Vanvaeck L, Shaffer SD, . Atmospheric epoxidation of benzo[a]pyrene by ozone - Formation of the metabolite benzo[a]pyrene-4,5-oxide. Science 1980;210:1347–1349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pöschl U, Letzel T, Schauer C, Niessner R. Interaction of ozone and water vapor with spark discharge soot aerosol particles coated with benzo[a]pyrene: O3 and H2O adsorption, benzo[a]pyrene degradation, and atmospheric implications. J Phys Chem A 2001;105:4029–4041.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alebic-Juretic A, Cvitas T, Klasinc L. Heterogeneous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation with ozone on silica-gel carrier. Environ Sci Technol 1990;24:62–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwamena NOA, Staikova MG, Donaldson DJ, George IJ, Abbatt JPD. Role of the aerosol substrate in the heterogeneous ozonation reactions of surface-bound PAHs. J Phys Chem A 2007;111:11050–11058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu CH, Salmeen I, Niki H. Fluorescence spectroscopic study of reactions between gaseous ozone and surface-adsorbed polycyclic aromatic-hydrocarbons. Environ Sci Technol 1984;18:603–607.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bedjanian Y, Nguyen ML. Kinetics of the reactions of soot surface-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with O3. Chemosphere 2010;79:387–393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ammann M, Pöschl U, Rudich Y. Effects of reversible adsorption and Langmuir-Hinshelwood surface reactions on gas uptake by atmospheric particles. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2003;5:351–356.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maranzana A, Serra G, Giordana A, Tonachini G, Barco G, Causa M, . Ozone interaction with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and soot in atmospheric processes: Theoretical density functional study by molecular and periodic methodologies. J Phys Chem A 2005;109:10929–10939.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiraiwa M, Garland RM, Pöschl U. Kinetic double-layer model of aerosol surface chemistry and gas-particle interactions (K2-SURF): Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposed to O3, NO2, H2O, OH and NO3. Atmos Chem Phys 2009;9:9571–9586.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung MY, Lazaro RA, Lim D, Jackson J, Lyon J, Rendulic D, . Aerosol-borne quinones and reactive oxygen species generation by particulate matter extracts. Environ Sci Technol 2006;40:4880–4886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser MP, Cass GR, Simoneit BRT, Rasmussen RA, Air quality model evaluation data for organics. 5. C-6-C-22 nonpolar and semipolar aromatic compounds. Environ Sci Technol 1998;32:1760–1770.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yassaa N, Meklati BY, Cecinato A, Marino F. Organic aerosols in urban and waste landfill of Algiers metropolitan area: Occurrence and sources. Environ Sci Technol 2001;35: 306–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson NK, McCurdy TR. Concentrations and phase distributions of nitrated and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air. Atmos Environ 1995;29:2575–2584.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaiser JC, Riemer N, Knopf DA. Detailed heterogeneous oxidation of soot surfaces in a particle-resolved aerosol model. Atmos Chem Phys 2011;11:4505–4520.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Springmann M, Knopf DA, Riemer N. Detailed heterogeneous chemistry in an urban plume box model: reversible co-adsorption of O3, NO2, and H2O on soot coated with benzo[a]pyrene. Atmos Chem Phys 2009;9:7461–7479.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elbert W, Taylor PE, Andreae MO, Pöschl U. Contribution of fungi to primary biogenic aerosols in the atmosphere: wet and dry discharged spores, carbohydrates, and inorganic ions. Atmos Chem Phys 2007;7:4569–4588.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schäppi GF, Suphioglu C, Taylor PE, Knox RB. Concentrations of the major birch tree allergen Bet v 1 in pollen and respirable fine particles in the atmosphere. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;100:656–661.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franze T, Weller MG, Niessner R, Pöschl U. Protein nitration by polluted air. Environ Sci Technol 2005;39:1673–1678.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hock N, Schneider J, Borrmann S, Römpp A, Moortgat G, Franze T, . Rural continental aerosol properties and processes observed during the Hohenpeissenberg Aerosol Characterization Experiment (HAZE2002). Atmos Chem Phys 2008;8:603–623.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Traidl-Hoffmann C, Jakob T, Behrendt H. Determinants of allergenicity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009;123:558–566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Amato G, Cecchi L, Bonini S, Nunes C, Annesi-Maesano I, Behrendt H, . Allergenic pollen and pollen allergy in Europe. Allergy 2007;62:976–990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgenstern V, Zutavern A, Cyrys J, Brockow I, Koletzko S, Kramer U, . Atopic diseases, allergic sensitization, and exposure to traffic-related air pollution in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177:1331–1337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strand V, Rak S, Svartengren M, Bylin G. Nitrogen dioxide exposure enhances asthmatic reaction to inhaled allergen in subjects with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:881–887.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun-Fahrlander C, Gassner M, Grize L, Neu U, Sennhauser FH, Varonier HS, . Prevalence of hay fever and allergic sensitization in farmer's children and their peers living in the same rural community. Clin Exp Allergy 1999;29:28–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Von Ehrenstein OS, Von Mutius E, Illi S, Baumann L, Bohm O, Von Kries R, . Reduced risk of hay fever and asthma among children of farmers. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;30: 187–193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riedler J, Eder W, Oberfeld G, Schreuer M. Austrian children living on a farm have less hay fever, asthma and allergic sensitization. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;30:194–200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishizaki T, Koizumi K, Ikemori R, Ishiyama Y, Kushibiki E. Studies of prevalence of Japanese cedar pollinosis among the residents in a densely cultivated area. Ann Allergy 1987; 58:265–270.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• D'Amato G. Urban air pollution and plant-derived respiratory allergy. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;30:628–636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Amato G. Airborne paucimicronic allergen-carrying particles and seasonal respiratory allergy. Allergy 2001;56: 1109–1111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maejima K, Tamura K, Nakajima T, Taniguchi Y, Saito S, Takenaka H, . Effects of the inhalation of diesel exhaust, Kanto loam dust, or diesel exhaust without particles on immune responses in mice exposed to Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) pollen. Inhal Toxicol 2001;13: 1047–1063.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahlholm JU, Helander ML, Savolainen J. Genetic and environmental factors affecting the allergenicity of birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii Orl. Hamet-Ahti) pollen. Clin Exp Allergy 1998;28:1384–1388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helander ML, Savolainen J, Ahlholm J. Effects of air pollution and other environmental factors on birch pollen allergens. Allergy 1997;52:1207–1214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziska LH, Gebhard DE, Frenz DA, Faulkner S, Singer BD, Straka JG, . Cities as harbingers of climate change: Common ragweed, urbanization, and public health. J Allergy Clinical Immunol 2003;111:290–295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang H, Zhang Y, Pöschl U. Quantification of nitrotyrosine in nitrated proteins. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010;397: 879–886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruijthuijsen YK, Grieshuber I, Stocklinger A, Tischler U, Fehrenbach T, Weller MG, . Nitration enhances the allergenic potential of proteins. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2006;141:265–275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Untersmayr E, Diesner SC, Oostingh GJ, Selzle K, Pfaller T, Schultz C, . Nitration of the egg-allergen ovalbumin enhances protein allergenicity but reduces the risk for oral sensitization in a murine model of food allergy. PLoS One 2010;5:e14210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Souza JM, Peluffo G, Radi R. Protein tyrosine nitration - Functional alteration or just a biomarker? Free Radical Biol Med 2008;45:357–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenacre SAB, Ischiropoulos H. Tyrosine nitration: Localisation, quantification, consequences for protein function and signal transduction. Free Radic Res 2001;34:541–581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ischiropoulos H. Protein tyrosine nitration-An update. Arch Biochem Biophys 2009;484:117–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ischiropoulos H, Zhu L, Chen J, Tsai M, Martin JC, Smith CD, . Peroxynitrite mediated tyrosine nitration catalyzed by superoxide dismutase. Arch Biochem Biophys 1992;298:431–437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckman JS, Beckman TW, Chen J, Marshall PA, Freeman BA. Apparent hydroxyl radical production by peroxynitrite - implications for endothelial injury from nitric oxide and superoxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87:1620–1624.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ischiropoulos H. Biological tyrosine nitration: A pathophysiological function of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species. Arch Biochem Biophys 1998;356:1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghosh S, Janocha AJ, Aronica MA, Swaidani S, Comhair SAA, Xu WL, . Nitrotyrosine proteome survey in asthma identifies oxidative mechanism of catalase inactivation. J Immunol 2006;176:5587–5597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turko IV, Murad F. Protein nitration in cardiovascular diseases. Pharmacol Rev 2002;54:619–634.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calabrese V, Sultana R, Scapagnini G, Guagliano E, Sapienza M, Bella R, . Nitrosative stress, cellular stress response, and thiol homeostasis in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2006;8:1975–1986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caudle WM, Richardson JR, Wang MZ, Taylor TN, Guillot TS, McCormack AL, . Reduced vesicular storage of dopamine causes progressive nigrostriatal neurodegeneration. J Neurosci 2007;27:8138–8148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyther R, McDonagh B, Sheehan D. Proteomics in investigation of protein nitration in kidney disease: Technical challenges and perspectives from the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Mass Spectrom Rev 2011;30:121–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turko IV, Marcondes S, Murad F. Diabetes-associated nitration of tyrosine and inactivation of succinyl-CoA : 3-oxoacid CoA- transferase. Am J Physiol-Heart Circul Physiol 2001; 281:H2289–H2294.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan MW. A review of approaches to the analysis of 3-nitrotyrosine. Amino Acids 2003;25:351–361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franze T, Weller MG, Niessner R, PÖschl U. Comparison of nitrotyrosine antibodies and development of immunoassays for the detection of nitrated proteins. Analyst 2004.129: 589–596.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franze T, Weller MG, Niessner R, Pöschl U. Enzyme immunoassays for the investigation of protein nitration by air pollutants. Analyst 2003;128:824–831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crow JP, Beckman JS. Quantitation of protein tyrosine, 3-nitrotyrosine, and 3-aminotyrosine utilizing HPLC and intrinsic ultraviolet absorbance. Methods (Orlando) 1995;7: 116–120.
   Google Scholar
• Kamisaki Y, Wada K, Nakamoto K, Kishimoto Y, Kitano M, Itoh T, . Sensitive determination of nitrotyrosine in human plasma by isocratic high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr B-Biomed Appl 1996;685: 343–347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soderling AS, Ryberg H, Gabrielsson A, Larstad M, Toren K, Niari S, . A derivatization assay using gaschromatography/negative chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry to quantify 3-nitrotyrosine in human plasma. J Mass Spectrom 2003;38:1187–1196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aulak KS, Miyagi M, Yan L, West KA, Massillon D, Crabb JW, . Proteomic method identifies proteins nitrated in vivo during inflammatory challenge. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:12056–12061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amoresano A, Chiappetta G, Pucci P, D'Ischia M, Marino G. Bidimensional tandem mass spectrometry for selective identification of nitration sites in proteins. Anal Chem 2007;79:2109–2117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiappetta G, Corbo C, Palmese A, Galli F, Piroddi M, Marino G, . Quantitative identification of protein nitration sites (vol 9, pg 1524, 2009). Proteomics 2009;9:3220.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abello N, Barroso B, Kerstjens HAM, Postma DS, Bischoff R. Chemical labeling and enrichment of nitrotyrosine-containing peptides. Talanta 2010;80:1503–1512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matters D, Cooper HJ, McDonnell L, Iniesta J, Heptinstall J, Derrick P, . Mass spectrometry in demonstrating the site-specific nitration of hen egg white lysozyme by an improved electrochemical method. Anal Biochem 2006;356:171–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walcher W, Franze T, Weller MG, P schl U, Huber CG. Liquid- and gas-phase nitration of bovine serum albumin studied by LC-MS and LC-MS/MS using monolithic columns. J Proteome Res 2003;2:534–542.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Yang H, Pöschl U. Analysis of nitrated proteins and tryptic peptides by HPLC-chip-MS/MS: site-specific quantification, nitration degree, and reactivity of tyrosine residues. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011;399:459–471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selzle K, Zhang Y, Hong Y, Shiraiwa M, PÖschl U. Protein nitration and allergies. G.I.T. Lab J Europe 2011:5–6.
   Google Scholar
• Shiraiwa M, Ammann M, Koop T, Pöschl U. Gas uptake and chemical aging of semisolid organic aerosol particles. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011;108:11003–11008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiraiwa M, Pfrang C, Pöschl U. Kinetic multi-layer model of aerosol surface and bulk chemistry (KM-SUB): the influence of interfacial transport and bulk diffusion on the oxidation of oleic acid by ozone. Atmos Chem Phys 2010;10: 3673–3691.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikhailov E, Vlasenko S, Martin ST, Koop T, Pöschl U. Amorphous and crystalline aerosol particles interacting with water vapor: conceptual framework and experimental evidence for restructuring, phase transitions and kinetic limitations. Atmos Chem Phys 2009;9:9491–9522.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koop T, Bookhold J, Shiraiwa M, Pöschl U. Glass transition and phase state of organic compounds: dependency on molecular properties and implications for secondary organic aerosols in the atmosphere. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:19238–19255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rouvinen J, Janis J, Laukkanen ML, Jylha S, Niemi M, Paivinen T, . Transient Dimers of Allergens. PLoS One 2010;5:e9037.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg AS. Effects of protein aggregates: An immunologic perspective. Aaps Journal 2006;8:E501–E507.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scholl I, Kalkura N, Shedziankova Y, Bergmann A, Verdino P, Knittelfelder R, . Dimerization of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1 is important for its in vivo IgE-cross-linking potential in mice. J Immuno 2005;175:6645–6650.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar