The Impact of Substance User Treatment Participation on Legal Employment and Income Among Probationers and Parolees

REFERENCES

• Albright, S., & Denq, F. (1996). Employer attitudes toward hiring ex-offenders. Prison Journal, 76, 118–137.
   Google Scholar
• Belenko, S. (2000). The challenges of integrating drug treatment into the criminal justice process. Albany Law Review, 63, 833–876.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, T. G., Seraganian, P., Tremblay, J., & Annis, H. (2002). Process and outcome changes with relapse prevention versus 12-step aftercare programs for substance abusers. Addiction, 97, 677–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burdon, W. M., Messina, N. P., & Prendergast, M. L. (2004). California treatment expansion initiative: Aftercare participation, recidivism, and predictors of outcomes. Prison Journal, 84, 61–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bureau of Economic Analysis. (1996). State per capita income growth in 1995 (press release BEA 96–31). Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved April 11, 2006, from http: //www.bea.gov/bea/newsrelarchive/1996/spi95.txt
   Google Scholar
• Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2006). Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population, 1940 to date. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved April 11, 2006, from ftp: //ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/lf/aat1.txt
   Google Scholar
• Burleson, J. A., & Kaminer, Y. (2005). Self-efficacy as a predictor of treatment outcome in adolescent substance use disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 30, 1751–1764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butzin, C. A., Martin, S. S., & Inciardi, J. A. (2005). Treatment during transition from prison to community and subsequent illicit drug use. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 28, 351–358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butzin, C. A., Scarpitti, F. R., Neilsen, A. L., Martin, S. S., & Inciardi, J. A. (1999). Measuring the impact of drug treatment: Beyond relapse and recidivism. Corrections Management Quarterly, 3, 1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Carpenedo, C. M., Needham, M., Knealing, T. W., Kolodner, K., Fingerhood, M., Wong, C. J., (2007). Professional demeanor of chronically unemployed cocaine-dependent methadone patients in a therapeutic workplace. Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 1141–1159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspi, A., Wright, B. R. E., & Moffitt, T. E. (1998). Early failure in the labor market: Childhood and adolescent predictors of unemployment in the transition to adulthood. American Sociological Review, 63, 424–451.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandler, D., Meisel, J., & Jordan, P. (2004). Substance abuse, employment, and welfare tenure. Social Service Review, 78, 628–651.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comeford, A. W. (1999). Work dysfunction and addiction: Common roots. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 16, 247–253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeMarce, J. M., Stephens, R. S., & Roffman, R. A. (2005). Psychological distress and marijuana use before and after treatment: Testing cognitive-behavioral matching hypotheses. Addictive Behaviors, 30, 1055–1059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunlap, L. J., Zarkin, G. A., Lennox, R., & Bray, J. W. (2007). Do treatment services for drug users in outpatient drug-free treatment programs affect employment and crime? Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 1161–1185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elk, R., Mangus, L. G., & LaSoya, R. J. (1997). Behavioral interventions: Effective and adaptable for the treatment of pregnant cocaine-dependent women. Journal of Drug Issues, 27, 625–658.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elk, R., Mangus, L. G., & Rhoades, H. (1998). Cessation of cocaine use during pregnancy: Effects of contingency management interventions on maintaining abstinence and complying with prenatal care. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 57–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. S. (2005). First grade and educational attainment by age 22: A new story. American Journal of Sociology, 110, 1458–1502.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn, P. M., Craddock, S. G., Hubbard, R. L., Anderson, J., & Etheridge, R. M. (1997). Methodological overview and research design for the Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study (DATOS). Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 11, 230–243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn, P. M., Porto, J. V., Rounds-Bryant, J. L., & Kristiansen, P. L. (2003). Costs and benefits of methadone treatment in DATOS—Part 2: Gender differences for discharged and continuing patients. Journal of Maintenance in the Addictions, 2, 151–169.
   Google Scholar
• Forty, J., Booth, B., & Zhang, M. (1998). Controlling for selection bias in the evaluation of Alcoholics Anonymous as aftercare treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 59, 690–697.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• French, M. T., Zarkin, G. A., Hubbard, R. L., & Rachal, J. V. (1993). Effects of time in drug abuse treatment and employment on posttreatment drug use and criminal activity. American Journal of Drug Alcohol Abuse, 19, 19–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freudenberg, N., Daniels, J., & Crum, M. (2005). Coming home from jail: The social and health consequences of community reentry for women, male adolescents, and their families and communities. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 1725–1736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginexi, E. M., Foss, M. A., & Scott, C. K. (2003). Transitions from treatment to work: Employment patterns following publicly funded substance abuse treatment. Journal of Drug Issues, 33, 497–518.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottfredson, D. C., Kearley, B. W., & Najaka, S. S. (2005). The Baltimore City Drug Treatment Court: 3-year self-report outcome study. Evaluation Review, 29, 42–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur, M., & Miller, L. (2004). Mentoring improves acceptance of a community intervention for court-referred male persons in need of supervision (PINS). Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21, 573–591.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, E. A., Prendergast, M. L., & Wellisch, J. (2004). Treating drug-abusing women prisoners: An outcomes evaluation of the forever free program. Prison Journal, 84, 81–105.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heggestad, E. D., & Kanfer, R. (2005). The predictive validity of self-efficacy in training performance: Little more than past performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11, 84–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbard, R. L., Craddock, S. G., Flynn, P. M., Anderson, J., & Etheridge, R. M. (1997). Overview of 1-year follow-up outcomes in the Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study (DATOS). Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 11, 261–278.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ilgen, M., McKellar, J., & Tiet, Q. (2005). Abstinence self-efficacy and abstinence 1 year after substance use disorder treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 1175–1180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, C. (2007). A re-count of poverty in US central cities: Just who and where are the urban poor? Urban Studies, 44, 2283–2303.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemp, K., Savitz, B., Thompson, W., & Zanis, D. A. (2004). Developing employment services for criminal justice clients enrolled in drug user treatment programs. Substance Use & Misuse, 39, 2491–2511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerley, K. R., & Kopes, H. (2004). The effects of criminal justice contact on employment stability for white-collar and street-level offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 65–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight, K., Hiller, M. L., & Broome, K. M. (2000). Legal pressure, treatment readiness, and engagement in long-term residential programs. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 30, 101–115.
   Google Scholar
• Koo, D. J., Chitwood, D. D., & Sánchez, J. (2007). Factors for employment: A case-control study of fully employed and unemployed heroin users. Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 1035–1054.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landouceur, R., Sylvain, C., & Boutin, C. (2003). Group therapy for pathological gamblers: A cognitive approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 587–596.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leukefeld, C., McDonald, H. S., & Staton, M. (2003). An employment intervention for drug-abusing offenders. Federal Probation, 67(2), 27–31.
   Google Scholar
• Leukefeld, C., McDonald, H. S., & Staton, M. (2004). Employment, employment-related problems, and drug use at drug court entry. Substance Use & Misuse, 39, 2559–2579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leukefeld, C., Webster, J. M., Staton-Tindall, M., & Duvall, J. (2007). Employment and work among drug court clients: 12-month outcomes. Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 1109–1126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lit, M. D., Kadden, R. M., & Stephens, R. S. (2005). Coping and self-efficacy in marijuana treatment: Results from the marijuana treatment project. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 1015–1025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maisto, S. A., Clifford, P. R., & Longabaugh, R. (2002). The relationship between abstinence for one year following pretreatment assessment and alcohol use and other functioning at two years in individuals presenting for alcohol treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63, 397–403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martella, D., & Maass, A. (2000). Unemployment and life satisfaction: The moderating role of time structure and collectivism. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 1095–1108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCoy, C. B., Comerford, M., & Metsch, L. R. (2007). Employment among chronic drug users at baseline and 6-month follow-up. Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 1055–1067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKernan, S.-M., & Ratcliff, C. (2005). Events that trigger poverty entries and exits. Social Science Quarterly, 86, 1146–1169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLellan, A. T., Gutman, M., & Lynch, K. (2003). One-year outcomes from the CASAWORKS for families intervention for substance-abusing women on welfare. Evaluation Review, 27, 656–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mejta, C. L., Bokos, P. J., Mickenberg, J., Maslar, M. E., & Senay, E. (1997). Improving substance abuse treatment access and retention using a case management approach. Journal of Drug Issues, 27, 329–340.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgenstern, J., Hogue, A., Dasaro, C., Kuerbis, A., & Dauber, S. (2008). Characteristics of individuals screening positive for substance use in a welfare setting: Implications for welfare and substance-use disorders treatment systems. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69, 561–570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nesdale, D., & Pinter, K. (2000). Self-efficacy and job-seeking activities in unemployed ethnic youth. Journal of Social Psychology, 140, 608–614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Connell, D. J. (2003). Investigating latent trait and life course theories as predictors of recidivism among an offender sample. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 455–467.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Connell, D. J., Enev, T. N., Martin, S. S., & Inciardi, J. A. (2007). Working toward recovery: The interplay of past treatment and economic status in long-term outcomes for drug-involved offenders. Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 1089–1107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pager, D. & Guillian, L. (2005). Walking the talk? What employers say versus what they do. American Sociological Review, 70, 355–380.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelissier, B., Motivans, M., & Rounds-Bryant, J. L. (2005). Substance abuse treatment outcomes: A multi-site study of male and female prison programs. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 41, 57–80.
   Google Scholar
• Pelissier, B., Wallace, S., O'Neil, J. A., Gaes, G. G., & Camp, S. (2001). Federal prison residential drug treatment reduces substance use and arrests after release. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 27, 315–337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perfetti, L. J., & Bingham, W. C. (1983). Unemployment and self-esteem in metal refinery workers. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 31, 195–202.
   Google Scholar
• Platt, J. J. (1997). Vocational rehabilitation of drug abusers. In G. A. Marlatt & G. R. Venden Bos (Eds.), Addictive behaviors: Readings on etiology, prevention, and treatment (pp. 759–801). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Platt, J. J., Husband, S. D., Hermalin, J., & Carter, J. (1993). A cognitive problem-solving employment readiness intervention for methadone clients. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 7, 21–33.
   Google Scholar
• Sacks, A. M. (1995). Longitudinal field investigation of the moderating and mediating effects of self-efficacy on the relationship between training and newcomer adjustment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 211–225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, L., Zabkiewicz, D., Jacobs, L., & Wiley, J. (2007). Substance abuse and employment among welfare mothers: From welfare to work and back again? Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 1069–1087.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegal, H. A., Li, L., & Rapp, R. C. (2002). Abstinence trajectories among treated crack cocaine users. Addictive Behaviors, 27, 437–449.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson, D. D., Joe, G. W., & Broome, K. M. (2002). A national 5-year follow-up of treatment outcomes for cocaine dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 538–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson, D. D., Joe, G. W., Rowan-Szal, G. A., & Greener, J. M. (1997). Drug abuse treatment process components that improve retention. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 14, 565–572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, B. D. (2003). How parental drug use and drug treatment compliance relate to family reunification. Child Welfare, 82, 335–365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staton, M., Mateyoke, A., Leukefeld, C., Cole, J., Hopper, H., Logan, T. K., (2001). Employment issues among drug court participants. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 33, 73–85.
   Google Scholar
• Steiner, B. (2004). Treatment retention: A theory of post-release supervision for the substance abusing offender. Federal Probation, 68, 24–29.
   Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2008). Results from the 2007 national survey on drug use and health: National findings (DHHS Publication No. SMA 08–4343). Rockville, MD: Office of Applied Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan, M. K., Larrison, C. R., & Nackerud, L. (2004). Examining the relationship between psychological well-being and the need for continued public assistance benefits. Families in Society, 85, 425–429.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sung, H.-E. (2001). Rehabilitating felony drug offenders through job development: A look into a prosecutor-led diversion program. Prison Journal, 81, 271–286.
   Google Scholar
• Sung, H.-E., Belenko, S., & Li, F. (2001). Treatment compliance in the trajectory of treatment progress among offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 20, 153–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sung, H.-E., Belenko, S., Li, F., & Tabachnick, C. (2004). Predicting treatment noncompliance among criminal justice-mandated clients: A theoretical and empirical exploration. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 26, 315–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomaskovic-Devev, D., Thomas, M., & Johnson, K. (2005). Race and the accumulation of human capital across the career: A theoretical model and fixed-effects application. American Journal of Sociology, 111, 58–89.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Travis, J., Solomon, A. L., & Waul, M. (2001). From prison to home: The dimensions and consequences of prisoner reentry. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Uggen, C. (2000). Work as a turning point in the life course of criminals: A duration model of age, employment, and recidivism. American Sociological Review, 65, 529–546.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• US Census Bureau. (2009). Historical income tables—People. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau. Retrieved July 4, 2008 from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/ historical/people/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Valdez, A., Kaplan, C. D., & Curtis, R. L. (2007). Aggressive crime, alcohol and drug use, and concentrated poverty in 24 U.S. urban areas. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 33, 595–603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, R., & Leukefeld, C. G. (2002). Employment rehabilitation. In C. G. Leukefeld, F. Tims, & D. Farabee (Eds.), Treatment of drug offenders: Policies and issues (pp. 69–79). New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Wanberg, C., Glomb, T., Song, Z., & Rosol, S. (2005). Job search persistence during unemployment: A ten wave longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(3), 411–430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanberg, C. R., Griffiths, R. F., & Gavin, M. B. (1997). Time structure and unemployment: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 75–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Washington, O. G. M., & Moxley, D. P. (2003). Promising group practices to empower low-income minority women coping with chemical dependency. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 109–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, M. S., Simmons, V. N., & Brandon, T. H. (2005). Tailored interventions for motivating smoking cessation: Using placebo tailoring to examine the influence of expectancies and personalization. Health Psychology, 24, 179–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weisburd, D., Waring, E., & Chayet, E. F. (2001). White-collar crime and criminal careers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Western, B. (2002). The impact of incarceration on wage mobility and inequality. American Sociological Review, 67, 526–546.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, C. J., & Silverman, K. (2007). Establishing and maintaining job skills and professional behaviors in chronically unemployed drug abusers. Substance Use & Misuse, 42(7), 1127–1140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, D. (2002). Impacts of perceived legal pressure on retention in drug treatment. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29, 27–55.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, D., & Belenko, S. (2002). Program retention and perceived coercion in three models of mandatory drug treatment. Journal of Drug Issues, 32, 297–328.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar