458
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Implementation of Harm Reduction Toward Crack Users in Brazil: Barriers and Achievements

&
Pages 535-546 | Published online: 19 Mar 2012

REFERENCES

  • Andrade, T., Lurie, P., Medina, M. G., Anderson, K., & Dourado, I. (2001). The opening of South America's first needle exchange program and an epidemic of crack cocaine use in Salvador, Bahia-Brazil. AIDS and Behavior, 5(1):51–64.
  • Asian Network of People Who Use Drugs (ANPUD). (2010). Retrieved October 1, 2010, from http://www.anpud.org/ANPUD/ Home.html.
  • Bell, C., Metsch, L. R., Vogenthaler, N., Cardenas, G., Rodriguez, A., Locascio, V., (2010). Never in care: Characteristics of HIV-infected crack cocaine users in 2 US cities who have never been to outpatient HIV care. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 54(4), 376–380.
  • Boyd, S., Johnson, J. L., & Moffat, B. (2008). Opportunities to learn and barriers to change: crack cocaine use in the Downtown Eastside of Vancouver. Harm Reduction Journal, 5, 34.
  • Burattini, M. N., Strazza, L., Paoliello, A. A., de Carvalho, H. B., de Azevedo, R. S., Coutinho, F. A., (2005). The change from intravenous to crack cocaine and its impact on reducing HIV incidence in Brazilian prisons. International Journal of STD and AIDS, 16(12), 836–837.
  • Butters, J., & Erickson, P. G. (2003). Meeting the health care needs of female crack users: A Canadian example. Womens Health, 37(37), 1–17.
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (1998). Recommendations for prevention and control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and HCV-related chronic disease. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Recommendations and Reports, 47(RR-19), 1–39.
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Viral Hepatitis. Retrieved September 27, 2010, from http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/index.htm.
  • Chettiar, J., Shannon, K., Wood, E., Zhang, R., & Kerr, T. (2010). Survival sex work involvement among street-involved youth who use drugs in a Canadian setting. Journal of Public Health (Oxford), 32(3), 322–327.
  • Cohen, E., Navaline, H., & Metzger, D. (1994). HIV-risk behaviors for HIV: A comparison between crack-abusing and opioid-abusing African-American women. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 26(3), 233–241.
  • Collins, C. L., Kerr, T., Kuyper, L. M., Li, K., Tyndall, M. W., Marsh, D. C., (2005). Potential uptake and correlates of willingness to use a supervised smoking facility for noninjection illicit drug use. Journal of Urban Health-Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 82(2), 276–284.
  • Conry-Cantilena, C., VanRaden, M., Gibble, J., Melpolder, J., Shakil, A. O., Viladomiu, L., (1996). Routes of infection, viremia, and liver disease in blood donors found to have hepatitis C virus infection. New England Journal of Medicine, 334(26), 1691–1696.
  • Crack Users Project (CUP). (2010). Street Health. Retrieved October 4, 2010, from http://www.streethealth.ca/Downloads/CUP-Manual.pdf.
  • DeBeck, K., Kerr, T., Li, K., Fischer, B., Buxton, J., Montaner, J., (2009). Smoking of crack cocaine as a risk factor for HIV infection among people who use injection drugs. CMAJ, 181(9), 585–589.
  • de Carvalho, H. B., & Seibel, S. D. (2009). Crack cocaine use and its relationship with violence and HIV. Clinics (Sao Paulo), 64(9), 857–866
  • de Oliveira, L. G., Barroso, L. P., Silveira, C. M., Sanchez, Z. V., De Carvalho Ponce, J., Vaz, L. J., (2009). Europsychological assessment of current and past crack cocaine users. Substance Use and Misuse, 44(13), 1941–1957.
  • Dias, A. C., Ribeiro, M., Dunn, J., Sesso, R., & Laranjeira, R. (2008). Follow-up study of crack cocaine users: Situation of the patients after 2, 5, and 12 years. Substance Abuse, 29(3), 71–79.
  • Dickson-Gomez, J. (2010). Can drug users be effective change agents? Yes, but much still needs to change. Substance Use and Misuse, 45(1-2), 154–160.
  • Dickson-Gómez, J., Bodnar, G., Gueverra, A., Rodriguez, K., & Mauricio, G. (2006). Childhood sexual abuse and HIV risk among crack-using commercial sex workers in San Salvador, El Salvador: A qualitative analysis. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 20(4), 545–574.
  • Duailibi, L. B., Ribeiro, M., & Laranjeira, R. (2008). Profile of cocaine and crack users in Brazil. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 24(Suppl 4), s545–s557.
  • Dunn J., & Laranjeira R. R. (1999). Cocaine—profiles, drug histories, and patterns use of patients from Brazil. Substance Use and Misuse, 34(11), 1527–1548.
  • Dunn, J., Laranjeira, R. R., Da Silveira, D. X., Formigoni, M. L., & Ferri, C. P. (1996). Crack cocaine: An increase in use among patients attending clinics in São Paulo: 1990–1993. Substance Use and Misuse, 31(4), 519–527.
  • Edlin, B. R., Irwin, K. L., Faruque, S., McCoy, C. B., Word, C., Serrano, Y., (1994). Intersecting epidemics crack-cocaine use and HIV infection among inner-city young adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 331(21), 1422–1427
  • Espoir Goutte d'Or (EGO). (2010). Retrieved October 4, 2010, from, http://www.ego.asso.fr./
  • Falck, R., Wang, J., Siegal, H., & Carlson, R. (2004). The prevalence of psychiatric disorders among a community sample of crack cocaine users. An exploratory study with practical implications. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 192(7), 503–507.
  • Faruque, S., Edlin, B. R., & McCoy, C. B. (1996). Crack cocaine smoking and oral sores in three inner-city neighborhoods. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 13(1), 87–92.
  • Fischer, B., Powis, J., Firestone Cruz, M., Rudzinski, K., & Rehm, J. (2008). Hepatitis C virus transmission among oral crack users: viral detection on crack paraphernalia. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 20(1), 29–32.
  • Fischer, B., Rehm, J., Patra, J., Kalousek, K., Haydon, E., Tyndall, M., (2006). Crack across Canada: Comparing crack users and crack non-users in a Canadian multi-city cohort of illicit opioid users. Addiction, 101(12), 1760–1770.
  • Garmaise, D. (2004). Groups distribute harm-reduction kits to crack users. HIV/AIDS Policy and Law Review, 9(3), 30–31.
  • Garmaise, D. (2007). Ottawa police accused of undermining crack distribution program. HIV/AIDS Policy and Law Review, 12(1), 27.
  • GLADA Crack Cocaine Strategy 2005/8. (2010). Retrieved October 4, 2010, from http://static.london.gov.uk/mayor/ health/drugs_and_alcohol/docs/GLADACCstrategy.pdf.
  • Hacker, M. A., Leite, I. C., Renton, A., Torres, T. G., Gracie, R., & Bastos, F. I. (2006). Reconstructing the AIDS epidemic among injection drug users in Brazil. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 22(4), 751–760.
  • Hacker, M. A., Malta, M., Enriquez, M., & Bastos, F. I. (2005). Human immunodeficiency virus, AIDS, and drug consumption in South America and the Caribbean: epidemiological evidence and initiatives to curb the epidemic. Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública, 18(4-5), 303–313.
  • Hammett, T. M., Des Jarlais, D., Johnston, P., Kling, R., Ngu, D., Liu, W., (2007). HIV prevention for injection drug users in China and Vietnam: Policy and research considerations. Global Public Health, 2(2), 125–139.
  • Haydon, E., Chorny, Y., & Fischer, B. (2005). Crack use and public health (with a specific focus on hepatitis C): Epidemiology, risk factors and interventions. Final draft report Ottawa. Public Health Agency of Canada.
  • Haydon, E., & Fischer, B. (2005). Crack use as a public health problem in Canada: Call for an evaluation of ‘safer crack use kits’. Canadian Journal of Public Health—Revue Canadienne De Sante Publique, 96(3), 185–188.
  • Hughes, J. J. (1999). Paying injection drug users to educate and recruit their peers: Why participant-driven interventions are an ethical public health model. Quality Management in Health Care, 7(4), 4–12.
  • Inciardi, J. A. (1993). Crack cocaine in the Americas. In M. G. Monteiro & J. A. Inciardi (Eds.), Sao Paulo: CEBRID—Centro Brasileiro de Informações sobre Drogas Psicotrópicas (Brazilian Center for Information About Psychotropic Drugs) (pp. 63–75). Brazil-United States: Binational Research.
  • International Harm Reduction Association (IHRA). (2010). The Global State of Harm Reduction 2010: Key issues for broadening the response. London: IHRA, Retrieved October 4, 2010, from http://www.ihra.net/files/2010/06/ 29/GlobalState2010_Web.pdf.
  • Janssen, P. A., Gibson, K., Bowen, R., Spittal, P. M., & Petersen, K. L. (2009). Peer support using a mobile access van promotes safety and harm reduction strategies among sex trade workers in Vancouver's Downtown Eastside. Journal of Urban Health—Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 86(5), 804–809.
  • Latkin, C. A. (1998). Outreach in natural settings: The use of peer leaders for HIV prevention among injecting drug users’ networks. Public Health Reports, 113(Suppl 1), 151–159.
  • Latkin, C. A., Hua, W., & Davey, M. A. (2004). Factors associated with peer HIV prevention outreach in drug-using communities. AIDS Education and Prevention, 16(6), 499–508.
  • Latkin, C. A., Knowlton, A. R., & Sherman, S. (2001). Routes of drug administration, differential affi liation, and lifestyle stability among cocaine and opiate users: Implications to HIV prevention. Journal of Substance Abuse, 13(1–2), 89–102.
  • Leonard, L., DeRubeis, E., Pelude, L., Medd, E., Birkett, N., & Seto, J. (2008). “I inject less as I have easier access to pipes”: Injecting, and sharing of crack-smoking materials, decline as safer crack-smoking resources are distributed. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 19(3), 255–264.
  • Logan, T., & Leukfeld, C. (2000). Sexual and drug use behaviours among female crack users: A multi-site sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 58(3), 237–245.
  • Malchy, L., Bungay, V., & Johnson, J. (2008). Documenting practices and perceptions of ‘safer’ crack use: A Canadian pilot study. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 19(4), 339–341.
  • Malta, M., Monteiro, S., Lima, R. M., Bauken, S., Marco, A., Zuim, G. C., (2008). HIV/AIDS risk among female sex workers who use crack in Southern Brazil. Revista de Saúde Pública, 42(5), 830–837.
  • McMahon, J. M., & Tortu, S. (2003). A potential hidden source of hepatitis C infection among noninjecting drug users. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 35(4), 455–460.
  • Mercure, S. A., Tetu, I., Lamonde, S., & Cote F. (2008). Guides de rue working group. Seeing is believing: An educational outreach activity on disinfection practices. Harm Reduction Journal, 12, 5–7.
  • Mitchell-Lewis, D. A., Phelan, J. A., Kelly, R. B., Bradley, J. J., & Lamster, I. B. (1994). Identifying oral lesions associated with crack cocaine use. Journal of the American Dental Association, 125, 1104–1108, 1110.
  • Murphy, S., & Rosenbaum, M. (1992). Women who use cocaine too much: Smoking crack vs. snorting cocaine. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 24(4), 381–388.
  • Needle, R., Kroeger, K., Belani, H., Achrekar, A., Parry, C. D., & Dewing, S. (2008). Sex, drugs, and HIV: Rapid assessment of HIV risk behaviors among street-based drug using sex workers in Durban, South Africa. Social Science and Medicine, 67(9), 1447–1455.
  • Nunes, C. L., Andrade, T., Galvão-Castro, B., Bastos, F. I., & Reingold, A. (2007). Assessing risk behaviors and prevalence of sexually transmitted and blood-borne infections among female crack cocaine users inSalvador–Bahia, Brazil. The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 11(6), 561–566.
  • Oliveira, L. G., & Nappo, S. A. (2008). Characterization of the crack cocaine culture in the city of São Paulo: A controlled pattern of use. Revista de Saúde Pública, 42(4), 664–671.
  • Ottaway, C. A., & Erickson, P. G. (1997). Frequent medical visits by cocaine using subjects in a Canadian community: An invisible problem for health practitioners. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 14(5), 423–429.
  • Page-Shafer, K. A., Cahoon-Young, B., Klausner, J. D., Morrow, S., Molitor, F., Ruiz, J., (2002). Hepatitis C virus infection in young, low-income women: The role of sexually transmitted infection as a potential cofactor for HCV infection. American Journal of Public Health, 92(4), 670–676.
  • Parry, C., Petersen, P., Carney, T., Dewing, S., & Needle, R. (2008). Rapid assessment of drug use and sexual HIV risk patterns among vulnerable drug-using populations in Cape Town, Durban and Pretoria, South Africa. SAHARA Journal, 5(3), 113–119.
  • Pechansky, F., Bassani, D. G., Diemen, L., Kessler, F., Leukefeld, C. G., Surratt, H. L., (2007). Using thought mapping and structured stories to decrease HIV risk behaviors among cocaine injectors and crack smokers in the South of Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 29(3), 233–240.
  • Pechansky, F., Woody, G., Inciardi, J., Surratt, H., Kessler, F., Von Diemen, L., (2006). HIV seroprevalence among drug users: An analysis of selected variables based on 10 years of data collection in Porto Alegre, Brazil. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 82(Suppl 1), S109–S113.
  • Perlman, D. C., Henman, A. R., Kochems, L., Paone, D., Salomon, N., & Des Jarlais, D. C. (1999). Doing a shotgun: A drug use practice and its relationship to sexual behaviors and infection risk. Social Science and Medicine, 48(10), 1141–1148.
  • Perlman, D. C., Perkins, M. P., Paone, D., Kochems, L., Salomon, N., Friedmann, P., (1997). “Shotgunning” as an illicit drug smoking practice. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 14(1), 3–9.
  • Porter, J., & Bonilla, L. (1993). Crack users’ cracked lips: An additional HIV risk factor. American Journal of Public Health, 83(10), 1490–1491.
  • Porter, J., Bonilla, L., & Drucker, E. (1997). Methods of smoking crack as a potential risk factor for HIV infection: Crack smokers’ perceptions and behavior. Contemporary Drug Problems, 24, 19–347.
  • Ross, M. W., Timpson, S. C., Williams, M. L., & Bowen, A. (2007). The impact of HIV-related interventions on HIV risk behavior in a community sample of African American crack cocaine users. AIDS Care, 19(5), 608–616.
  • Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Rhodes, F., Desmond, K., & Weiss, R. E. (2010). Reducing HIV risks among active injection drug and crack users: The safety counts program. AIDS and Behavior, 14(3), 658–668.
  • Roxburgh, A., Degenhardt, L., Copeland, J., & Larance, B. (2008). Drug dependence and associated risks among female street-based sex workers in the greater Sydney area, Australia. Substance Use and Misuse, 43(8-9), 1202–1217.
  • Shannon, K., Rusch, M., Morgan, R., Oleson, M., Kerr, T., & Tyndall, M. W. (2008). HIV and HCV prevalence and gender-specific risk profiles of crack cocaine smokers and dual users of injection drugs. Substance Use and Misuse, 43(3–4), 521–534.
  • Small, W., Kerr, T., Charette, J., Schechter, M. T., & Spittal, P. M. (2006). Impacts of intensified police activity on injection drug users: Evidence from an ethnographic investigation. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 17(2), 85–95.
  • Story, A., Bothamley, G., & Hayward, A. (2008). Crack cocaine and infectious tuberculosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 14(9):1466–1469.
  • Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park: Sage.
  • Strike, C., Leonard, L., Millison, M., Anstice, S., Berkley, N., & Medd, E. (2006). Ontario needle exchange programs: Best practice recommendations. Toronto, Ontario: Toronto Ontario Needle Exchange Coordinating Committee.
  • Symington, A. (2007). Ottawa: crack pipe program cancelled by city council. HIV AIDS Policy Law Rev, 12(2-3):29–30.
  • Tortu, S., McMahon, J., Pouget, E., & Hamid, R. (2004). Sharing of noninjection drug-use implements as a risk factor for hepatitis C. Substance Use and Misuse, 39(2), 211–224.
  • Tortu, S., Neaigus, A., McMahon, J., & Hagen, D. (2001). Hepatitis C among noninjecting drug users: A report. Substance Use and Misuse, 36(4), 523–534.
  • Verthein, U., Haasen, C., Prinzleve, M., Degkwitz, P., & Krausz, M. (2001). Cocaine use and the utilization of drug help services by consumers of the open drug scene in Hamburg. European Addiction Research, 7(4), 176–183.
  • Wechsberg, W. M., Luseno, W., Riehman, K., Karg, R., Browne, F., & Parry, C. (2008). Substance use and sexual risk within the context of gender inequality in South Africa. Substance Use and Misuse, 43(8-9):1186–1201.
  • Weeks, M. R., Convey, M., Dickson-Gomez, J., Li, J., Radda, K., Martinez, M., (2009). Changing drug users’ risk environments: Peer health advocates as multi-level community change agents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 43(3–4), 330–344.
  • Weeks, M. R., Dickson-Gomez, J., Mosack, K. E., Convey, M., Martinez, M., & Clair, S. (2006). The risk avoidance partnership: Training active drug users as peer health advocates. Journal of Drug Issues, 36(3), 541–570.
  • Weeks, M. R., Li, J., Dickson-Gomez, J., Convey, M., Martinez, M., Radda, K., (2009a). Outcomes of a peer HIV prevention program with injection drug and crack users: The Risk Avoidance Partnership. Substance Use and Misuse, 44(2), 253–281.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.