2,866
Views
60
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Revisiting the Concepts of Risk and Protective Factors for Understanding the Etiology and Development of Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders: Implications for Prevention

, &
Pages 944-962 | Published online: 07 Jun 2012

REFERENCES

  • Alati, R., Kinner, S. A., Hayatbakhsh, M. R., Mamun, A. A., Najman, J. M., & Williams, G. M. (2008). Pathways to ecstasy use in young adults: Anxiety, depression or behavioural deviance? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 92, 108–115.
  • Allan, C. A. (1995). Alcohol problems and anxiety disorders–a critical review. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 30, 145–151.
  • Andersson, T., & Magnusson, D. (1990). Biological maturation in adolescence and the development of drinking habits and alcohol abuse among young males: A prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 33–41.
  • Anthony, J. C., & Petronis, K. R. (1995). Early-onset drug use and risk of later drug problems. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 40, 9–15.
  • Armstrong, T. A., & Costello, E. J. (2002). Community studies on adolescent substance use, abuse, or dependence and psychiatric comorbidity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1224–1239.
  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480.
  • Babor, T. E., & Caetano, R. (2006). Subtypes of substance dependence and abuse: Implications for diagnostic classification and empirical research. Addiction, 101, S104–S110.
  • Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O'Malley, P. M. (1990). Explaining the recent decline in cocaine use among young adults: Further evidence that perceived risks and disapproval lead to reduced drug use. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31, 173–184.
  • Bachman, J. G., Johnston, L. D., & O'Malley, P. M. (1998). Explaining recent increases in students’ marijuana use: Impacts of perceived risks and disapproval, 1976 through 1997. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 887–892.
  • Bachman, J. G., O'Malley, P. M., Schulenberg, J. E., Johnston, L. D., Bryant, A. L., & Merliner, A. C. (2002). The decline of substance use in young adulthood: Changes in social activities, roles, and beliefs. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Bachman, J. G., Wadsworth, K. N., O'Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D., & Schulenberg, J. E. (1997). Smoking, drinking, and drug use in young adulthood. The impacts of new freedoms and new responsibilities. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Barrett, A. E., & Turner, R. J. (2006). Family structure and substance use problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Examining explanations for the relationship. Addiction, 101, 109–120.
  • Bauer, L. O., & Hesselbrock, V. M. (1999). P300 decrements in teenagers with conduct problems: Implications for substance abuse risk and brain development. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 263–272.
  • Bauer, L. O., & Hesselbrock, V. M. (2001). CSD/BEM localization of P300 sources in adolescents “at risk”. Evidence of frontal cortex dysfunction in conduct disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 600–608.
  • Biernacki, P. (1986). Pathway from Heroin Addiction. Recovery without Treatment. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
  • Blakemore, S. J. (2008a). Development of the social brain during adolescence. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 40–49.
  • Blakemore, S. J. (2008b). The social brain in adolescence. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 267–277.
  • Bobshev, G. V., & Anthony, J. C. (1998). Clusters of marijuana use in the United States. American Journal of Epidemiology, 148, 1168–1174.
  • Boeri, M. W., Sterk, C. E., & Elifson, K. W. (2008). Reconceptualizing early and late onset: A life course analysis of older heroin users. The Gerontologist, 48, 637–645.
  • Booth, A., & Osgood, D. (1993). The influence of testosterone on deviance in adulthood. Criminology, 31, 93–117.
  • Bovasso, G. B. (2001). Cannabis abuse as a risk factor for depressive symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 2033–2037.
  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  • Brown, C. H., Sloboda, Z., Faggiano, F., Teasdale, B., Keller, F., Burkhart, G., , and the Prevention Science and Methodology Group. (2011) Methods for Synthesizing Findings on Moderation Effects Across Multiple Randomized Trials, Prev Sci. [Epub ahead of print].
  • Burgess, R. L., & MacDonald, K. (2005). Evolutionary perspectives on human development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  • Button, T. M. M., Hewitt, J. K., Rhee, S. H., Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., & Stallings, M. C. (2006). Examination of the causes of covariation between conduct disorder symptoms and vulnerability to drug dependence. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 9, 38–45.
  • Carlson, S. C., McLarnon, M. E., & Iacono, W. G. (2007). P300 amplitude, externalizing psychopathology, and earlier- versus later-onset substance use disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 565–577.
  • Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., Oesterle, S., Fleming, C. B., & Hawkins, J. D. (2004). The role of bonding to school for health development: Findings from the Social Development Research Group. Journal of School Health, 74, 252–261.
  • Chen, C. Y., Storr, C. L., & Anthony, J. C. (2009). Early-onset drug use and risk for drug dependence problems. Addictive Behaviors, 34, 319–322.
  • Chilcoat, H. D., & Anthony, J. C. (1996). Impact of parental monitoring on initiation of drug use through late childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 91–100.
  • Choi, Y., Harachi, T. W., & Catalano, R. F. (2006). Neighborhoods, family and substance use: Comparison of the relations across racial and ethnic groups. The Social Service Review, 80, 675–704.
  • Clark, D. B., & Neighbors, B. (1996). Adolescent substance abuse and internalizing disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5, 45–57.
  • Coffey, C., Lynskey, M., Wolfe, R., & Patton, G. (2000). Initiation and progression of cannabis use in a population-based Australian adolescent longitudinal study. Addiction, 95, 1679–1690.
  • Cohen, P. D., & Sas, A. (1994). Cocaine use in Amsterdam in non-deviant subcultures. Addiction Research, 2, 71–94.
  • Cornelius, M. D., & Day, N. L. (2009). Developmental consequences of prenatal tobacco exposure. Current Opinion in Neurology, 22, 121–125.
  • Crano, W. D., Siegel, J. T., Alvaro, E. M., Lac, A., & Hemovich, V. (2008). The at-risk adolescent marijuana nonuser: Expanding the standard distinction. Prevention Science, 9, 129–137.
  • Crum, R. M., Storr, C. L., & Chan, Y.-F. (2005). Depression syndromes with risk of alcohol dependence in adulthood: A latent class analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 79, 71–81.
  • D'Amico, E. J., Edelen, M. O., Miles, J. N. V., & Morral, A. R. (2008). The longitudinal association between substance use and delinquency among high-risk youth. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 93, 85–92.
  • D'Amico, E. J., & McCarthy, D. M. (2006). Escalation and initiation of younger adolescents’ substance use: The impact of perceived peer use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 481–487.
  • Dawes, M., Antelman, S,. Vanyukov, M., Giancola, P., Tarter, R., Sussman, E., (2000). Development sources of variation in liability to adolescent substance use disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 61, 3–14.
  • Dawes, M., Clark, D., Moss, H., Kirisci, L., & Tarter, R. (1999). Family and peer correlates of behavioral self-regulation in boys at risk for substance abuse. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 25, 219–237.
  • De Wit, H. (2008). Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use: A review of underlying processes. Addiction Biology, 14, 22–31.
  • Degenhardt, L., Chiu, W. T., Conway, K., Dierker, L., Glantz, M., Kalaydjian, A., (2009). Does the “gateway” matter? Associations between the order of drug use initiation and the development of drug dependence in the National Comorbidity Study Replication. Psychological Medicine, 39, 157–167.
  • Dembo, R., Allen, N., Farrow, D., Schmeidler, J., & Burgos, W. (1985). A causal analysis of early drug involvement in three inner-city neighborhood settings. International Journal of the Addictions, 20, 1213–1237.
  • DeWit, D. J., Hance, J., Offord, D. R., & Ogborne, A. (2000). The influence of early and frequent use of marijuana on the risk of desistance and of progression to marijuana-related harm. Preventive Medicine, 31, 455–464.
  • Dick, D., Latendresse, S., Lansford, J., Budde, J., Goate, A., Dodge, K., (2009). Role of GABRA2 in trajectories of externalizing behavior across development and evidence of moderation by parental monitoring. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 649–657.
  • Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349–371.
  • Duncan, P. D., Ritter, P. L., Dornbusch, S. M., Gross, R. T., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1985). The effects of pubertal timing on body image, school behavior, and deviance. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 227–235.
  • Duncan, S. C., Duncan, T. E., & Strycker, L. A. (2002). A multilevel analysis of neighborhood context and youth alcohol and drug problems. Prevention Science, 3, 125–133.
  • Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2000). Cannabis use and dependence in a New Zealand Birth Cohort. New Zealand Medical Journal, 12, 156–158.
  • Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Ridder, E. M. (2007). Conduct and attentional problems in childhood and adolescence and later substance use, abuse and dependence: Results of a 25-year longitudinal study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 88, S14–S26.
  • Fisher, P. A., & Stoolmiller, M. (2008). Intervention effects on foster parent stress: Associations with child cortisol levels. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 1003–1021.
  • Fisher, P. A., Stoolmiller, M., Gunnar, M. R., & Burraston, B. O. (2007). Effects of a therapeutic intervention for foster preschoolers on diurnal cortisol activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32, 892–905.
  • Fontaine, N., Carbonneau, R., Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., & Tremblay, R. E. (2009). Research review: A critical review of studies on the developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior in females. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 363–385.
  • Frick, P. J. (2006). Developmental pathways to conduct disorder. Child Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 311–331.
  • Frome, M. R. (2009). Does a permissive workplace substance use climate affect employees who do not use alcohol and drugs at work? A U.S. national study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23, 386–390.
  • Fromme, K., Corbin, W. R., & Kruse, M. I. (2008). Behavioral risks during the transition from high school to college. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1497–1504.
  • Fu, Q., Heath, A. C., Bucholz, K. K., Nelson, E., Goldberg, J., Lyons, M. J., (2002). Shared genetic risk of major depression, alcohol dependence, and marijuana dependence: Contribution of antisocial personality disorder in men. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 1125–1132.
  • Galea, S., Ahern, J., Tracy, M., & Vlahov, D. (2007). Neighborhood income and income distribution and the use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32, S195–S202.
  • George, D. T., Nutt, D. J., Dwyer, B. A., & Linnoila, M. (1990). Alcoholism and panic disorder: Is the comorbidity more than coincidence? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 81, 97–107.
  • Gfroefrer, J., Penn, M., Pemberton, M., & Folsom, R. (2003). Substance abuse treatment need among older adults in 2020: The impact of the aging baby-boom cohort. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 69, 127–135.
  • Giancola, P., & Tarter, R. (1999). Executive cognitive functioning and risk for substance abuse. Psychological Science, 10, 203–205.
  • Glantz, M. D., & Chambers, J. C. (2006). Prenatal drug exposure effects on subsequent vulnerability to drug abuse. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 893–922.
  • Glantz, M. D., & Sloboda, Z. (1999). Analysis and reconceptualization of resilience. In M. D. Glantz & J. L. Johnson (Eds.), Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 109–126). New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  • Glantz, M. D., Weinberg, N. Z., Miner, L. L., & Colliver, J. D. (1999). The origins of drug abuse: Mapping the paths. In M. D. Glantz,C. R. Hartel (Eds.), Drug abuse: Origins and interventions (pp. 3–45). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.
  • Glantz, M. D. (2009). Touchstone issues for theories of substance abuse-dependence etiology. In: L. M. Scheier (Ed.), The handbook of drug use etiology. Washington, D. C. American Psychological Association.
  • Glantz, M. D., Anthony, J. C., Berglund, P. A., Degenhardt, L., Dierker, L., Kalaydjian, A., (2009). Mental disorders as risk factors for later substance dependence: Estimates for optimal prevention and treatment benefits. Psychological Medicine, 39, 1365–1377.
  • Glantz, M. D., Conway, K. P., & Colliver, J. D. (2005). Drug abuse heterogeneity and the search for subtypes. In Z. Sloboda (Ed.),Epidemiology of drug abuse (pp. 15–28). New York: Springer.
  • Glantz, M. D., & Pickens, R. W. (1992). Vulnerability to drug abuse: Introduction and overview. In M. D. Glantz, R. W. Pickens (Eds.), Vulnerability to drug abuse (pp. 1–14). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
  • Gordon, H. W., & Glantz, M. D. (1996). Introduction: Individual differences in the biobehavioral etiology of drug abuse in Gordon. In H. W., Glantz & M. D. (Eds.), Individual differences in the biobehavioral etiology of drug abuse (pp. 1–15). Rockville: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
  • Grant, B. F., & Harford, T. C. (1995). Comorbidity between DSM-IV alcohol use disorders and major depression: Results of a national survey. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 39, 197–206.
  • Grant, B. F., & Pickering, R. (1998). The relationship between cannabis use and DSM-IV cannabis dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. Journal of Substance Abuse, 10, 255–264.
  • Green, A. F., Munafo, M. R., DeYoung, C. G., Fossella, J. A., Fan, J., & Gray, J. R. (2008). Using genetic data in cognitive neuroscience: From growing pains to genuine insights. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 710–720.
  • Gregory, A. M., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Koenen, K., Eley, T. C., & Poulton, R. (2007). Juvenile mental health histories of adults with anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 301–308.
  • Grove, W. M., Eckert, E. D., Heston, L., Bouchard, T. J. Jr., Segal, N., & Lykken, D. T. (1990). Heritability of substance abuse and antisocial behavior: A study of monozygotic twins reared apart. Biological Psychiatry, 27, 1293–1304.
  • Han, B., Gfroerer, J. C., Colliver, J. D., & Penne, M. A. (2009). Substance use disorder among older adults in the United States in 2020. Addiction, 104, 88–96.
  • Harder VS, & Chilcoat HD. (2007). Cocaine use and educational achievement: Understanding a changing association over the past 2 decades. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 1790–1793.
  • Hart, J., Gunnar, M, & Cecchetti, D. (1995). Salivary cortisol in maltreated children. Evidence of relations between neuroendocrine activity and social competence. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 11–26.
  • Hasin, D. S., & Grant, B. F. (2002). Major depression in 5060 former drinkers: Association with past alcohol dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 794–800.
  • Hawkins, J. D, Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64–105.
  • Hayatbakhsh, M. R., Mamun, A. A., Najman, J. M., O'Callaghan, M. J., Bor, W., & Alati R. (2008). Early childhood predictors of early substance use and substance use disorders: Prospective study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 42, 720–731.
  • Hayatbakhsh, M. R., Najman, J. M., McGee, T. R., Bor, W., & O'Callaghan, M. J. (2009). Early pubertal maturation in the prediction of early adult substance use: A prospective study. Addiction, 104, 59–66.
  • Hayatbakhsh, M. R., Najman, J. M., Jamrozik, K., Mamun, A. A., Bor, W., & Alati, R. (2008). Adolescent problem behaviours predicting DSM-IV diagnoses of multiple substance use disorder. Findings of a prospective birth cohort study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 43, 356–63.
  • Hesselbrock, V. M., & Hesselbrock, M. N. (2006). Are there empirically supported and clinically useful subtypes of alcohol dependence? Addiction, 101, S97–S103.
  • Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., Iacono, W. G., McGue, M., & Patrick, C. J. (2004). Family transmission and heritability of externalizing disorders: A twin-family study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 922–928.
  • Hill, A. B. (1965). The environment and disease: Association or causation? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 58, 295–300.
  • Hofler, M. (2005). The Bradford Hill considerations on causality: A counterfactual perspective. Emerging Themes in Epidemiology, 2, 11.
  • Jackson, K. M., Sher, K. J., & Wood, P. K. (2000). Trajectories of concurrent substance use disorders: A developmental typological approach to co-morbidity. Alcoholism, Clinical, and Experimental Research, 24, 902–913.
  • Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (1977). Problem behavior and psychological development: A longitudinal study of youth. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
  • Johnston, J. G., Cohen, P., Chen, H., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2006). Parenting behaviors associated with risk for offspring personality disorder during adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 579–587.
  • Johnston, L., O'Malley, P., Bachman, J., & Schulenberg, J. (2009). Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2008: Volume 1, Secondary school students (NIH Publication No. 09-7402). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
  • Jonnes, J. (1995). The rise of the modern addict. American Journal of Public Health, 85, 1157–1162.
  • Kandel, D. B., & Chen, K. (2000). Types of marijuana users by longitudinal course. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 367–378.
  • Kandel, D. B., & Raveis, V. H. (1989). Cessation of illicit drug use in young adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 109–116.
  • Kandel, D. B., & Udry, J. R. (1999). Prenatal effects of maternal smoking on daughters’ smoking: Nicotine or testosterone exposure? American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1377–1383.
  • Kazdin, A. E., Kraemer, H. C., Kessler, R. C., Kupfer, D. J., & Offord, D. R. (1997). Contributions of risk-factor research to developmental psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 375–406.
  • Kellam, S. G., Ling, X., Merisca, R., Brown, C. H., & Ialongo, N. (1998). The effect of level of aggression in the first grade classroom on the course and malleability of aggressive behavior into middle school. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 165–185.
  • Kendler, K. S., Jacobson, K. C., Prescott, C. A., & Neale, M. C. (2003). Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for use and abuse/dependence of cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, sedatives, stimulants, and opiates in male twins. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 687–695.
  • Kendler, K. S., Myers, J., & Prescott, C. A. (2007). Specificity for genetic and environmental risk factors for symptoms of cannabis, cocaine, alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine dependence. Archive of General Psychiatry, 64, 1313–1320.
  • Kendler, K. S., & Prescott, C. A. (1998). Cannabis use, abuse, and dependence in a population-based sample of female twins. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1016–1022.
  • Kessler, R. C. (2004). Impact of substance abuse on the diagnosis, course, and treatment of mood disorders: The epidemiology of dual diagnosis. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 730–737.
  • Kessler, R. C., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Andrade, L., Bijl, R., Borges, G., Caraveo-Anduaga, J. J., (2003). Cross-national comparisons of comorbidities between substance use disorders and mental disorders: Results from the International Consortium in Psychiatric Epidemiology. In W. J. Bukoski & Z. Sloboda, (Eds.), Handbook for drug abuse prevention theory, science, and practice. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
  • Kessler, R. C., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Andrade, L., Bijl, R., Borges, G., Caraveo-Anduaga, J. J., (2001). Mental-substance comorbidities in the ICPE surveys. Psychiatria Fennica, 32 (suppl. 2), 62–80.
  • Kessler, R. C., Nelson, C. B., McGonagle, K. A., Edlund, M. J., Frank, R. G., & Leaf, P. J. (1996). The epidemiology of co-occurring addictive and mental disorders: Implications for prevention and service utilization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 17–31.
  • Kirillova, G., Vanyukov, M., Gavaler, J., Pajer, K., Dunn, M., & Tarter, R. (2001). Substance abuse in parents and their adolescent offspring. The role of sexual maturation and sensation seeking. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 10, 77–89.
  • Kirisci, L., Tarter, R., Mezzich, A., Ridenour, T., Reynolds, M., & Vanyukov, M. (2009). Prediction of cannabis use disorder between boyhood and young adulthood: Clarifying the phenotype and environtype. The American Journal of the Addictions, 18, 36–47.
  • Korhonen, T., Huizink, A. C., Dirk, D. M., Pulkkinen, L., Rose, R. J., & Kaprio, J. (2008). Role of individual, peer and family factors in the use of cannabis and other illicit drugs: A longitudinal analysis among Finnish adolescent twins. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 97, 33–43.
  • Kraemer, H. C., Kazdin, A. E., Offord, D. R., Kessler, R. C., Jensen, P. S., & Kupfer, D. J. (1997). Coming to terms with the terms of risk. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 337–343.
  • Kranzler, H. R., Del Boca, F. K., & Rounsaville, B. J. (1996). Comorbid psychiatric diagnosis predicts three-year outcomes in alcoholics: A posttreatment natural history study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 57, 619–626.
  • Kushner, M. G., Sher, K. J., & Erickson, D. J. (1999). Prospective analysis of the relation between DSM-III anxiety disorders and alcohol use disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 723–732.
  • Levy, F., Hay, D. A., McStephen, M., Wood, C., & Waldman, I. (1997). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 737–744.
  • Lewis, C. E., Rice, J., & Helzer, J. E. (1983). Diagnostic interactions: Alcoholism and antisocial personality. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 171, 105–113.
  • Magnusson, D., Stattin, H., & Allen, V. (1985). Biological maturation and social development. A longitudinal study of some adjustment processes from mid-adolescence to adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 267–283.
  • Marlatt, G. A. & Gordon, J. R. (Eds.). (1985). Relapse prevention: Maintenance strategies in the treatment of addictive behaviors. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  • Martini, S., Wagner, F. A., & Anthony, J. C. (2002). The association of tobacco smoking and depression in adolescence: Evidence from the United States. Substance Use and Misuse, 37, 1853–1867.
  • Mayberry, M. L., Espelage, D. L., & Koenig, B. (2009). Multilevel modeling of direct effects and interactions of peers, parents, school, and community influences on adolescent substance use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1038–1049.
  • Maziade, M., Caron, C., Cote, R, Merette, C., Bernier, H., Laplante, B., (1990). Psychiatric status of adolescents who had extreme temperaments at age 7. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 1531–1537.
  • McBurnett, K., Lahey, B., Rathouz, P., & Loeber, R. (2008). Low salivary cortisol and persistent aggression in boys referred for disruptive behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 38–43.
  • McCabe, S. E., Schulenberg, J. E., Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Kloska, D. D. (2005). Selection and socialization effects of fraternities and sororities on U.S. college student substance use: A multi-cohort national longitudinal study. Addiction, 100, 512–524.
  • McCusker, C. G., Roberts, G., Douthwaite, J., & Williams, E. (1995). Teenagers and illicit drug use—Expanding the “user vs. non-user” dichotomy. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 5, 221–241.
  • McMillan, B., Sherlock, K., & Conner, M. (2003). Expanding the traditional user versus non-user dichotomy amongst ecstasy users. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 15–28.
  • McNamee, R., Dunfee, K., Luna, B., Clark, D., Eddy, W., & Tarter, R. (2008). Neural activation, response inhibition, and increased risk for substance use disorder: A pilot fMRI study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 32, 405–413.
  • Mendola, P., Selewan, S. G., Gutter, S., & Rice, D. (2002). Environmental factors associated with a spectrum of neurodevelopmental deficits. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 8, 188–197.
  • Merikangas, K. R., Mehta, R. L., Molnar, B. E., Walters, E. E., Swendsen, J. D., Aguilar-Gaziola S.,et al. (1998). Comorbidity of substance use disorders with mood and anxiety disorders: Results of the International Consortium in Psychiatric Epidemiology. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 893–907.
  • Miech, R. A., & Chilcoat, H. (2007). Disparities in illegal drug use over the life course: Implications for prevention and intervention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32, S171–S176.
  • Miech, R. A., Chilcoat, H., & Harder, V. (2005). The increase in the association of education and cocaine use over the 1980s and 1990s: Evidence for a ‘Historical Period’ effect. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 79, 311–320.
  • Mirin, S. M., Weiss, R. D., Griffin, M. L., & Michael, J. L. (1991). Psychopathology in drug abusers and their families. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 32, 36–51.
  • Moggi, F. (2005). Etiological theories on the relationship of mental disorders and substance use disorders. In R. Stohler, and W. Rossler (Eds.), Dual diagnosis: The evolving conceptual framework (pp. 1–14). Bibliotheca Psychiatrica, No. 172. Basel: Karger.
  • Molina, B. S., & Pelham, W. E. (2003). Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 497–507.
  • Musto, D. F. (1999). Drugs in America: A documentary history. New York: University Press.
  • Najam, H., Moss, H., Kirisci, L., & Tarter, R. (1997). Executive cognitive functioning predicts drug use in youth. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 22, 3–12.
  • O'Connell, M. E., Boat, T., & Warner, K. E. (2009). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine.
  • Ochsner, K. N. (2004). Current directions in social cognitive. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14, 254–258.
  • Olds, D. L., Kitzman, H., Hanks, C., Cole, R., Anson, E., Sidora-Arcoleo, K., (2007). Effects of nurse home visiting on maternal and child functioning: Age-9 follow-up of a randomized trial. Pediatrics, 120, 832–845.
  • Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Lynskey, J. B., & Hall, W. (2007). Trajectories of adolescent alcohol and cannabis use into young adulthood. Addiction, 102, 607–615.
  • Perkonigg, A., Lieb, R., Hofler, M., Schuster, P., Sonntag, H., & Wittchen, H. U. (1999). Patterns of cannabis use, abuse and dependence over time: Incidence, progression and stability in a sample of 1228 adolescents. Addiction, 94, 1663–1678.
  • Petras, H., Kellam, S. G., Brown, C. H., Muthén, B., & Ialongo, N., Poduska, J. (2008). Developmental epidemiological courses leading to antisocial personality disorder and violent and criminal behavior: Effects by young adulthood of a universal preventive intervention in first- and second-grade classrooms. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 95S1, S45–S59.
  • Philibert, R., Gunter, T., Beach, S., Brody, G., Hollenbeck, N., Andersen, A., (2009). Role of GABRA2 on risk for alcohol, nicotine, and cannabis dependence in the Iowa Adoption Studies. Psychiatric Genetics, 119, 91–98.
  • Phillips, C. V., & Goodman, K. J. (2006). Causal criteria and counterfactuals; nothing more (or less) than common sense. Emerging Themes in Epidemiology, 3, 5.
  • Piacentini, L., Fencizia, C., Naddio, V., & Clerici, M. (2008). Not just sheer luck! Immune correlates of protection against HIV-1 infection. Vaccine, 26, 3002–3007.
  • Polich, J., Pollock, V. E., & Bloom, F. E. (1994). Meta-analysis of P300 amplitude from males at risk for alcoholism. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 55–73.
  • Pope, K., & Thomas, C. R. (2007). The etiology of antisocial behavior: Biopsychosocial risk factors across development. In C. L. Kessler, L. J. Kraus, (Eds.), (The mental health needs of young offenders: Forging paths toward reintegration and rehabilitation (pp. 122–145). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Regier, D. A., Farmer, M. E., Rae, D. S., Locke, B. Z., Keith, S. J., Judd, L. L., (1990). Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse: Results of the epidemiologic catchment area (ECA) study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 264, 2511–2518.
  • Reiss, D., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2000). The interplay of genetic influences and social processes in developmental theory: Specific mechanisms are coming into view. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 357–374.
  • Rettew, D. C., & McKee, L. (2005). Temperament and its role in developmental psychopathology. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 13, 14–27.
  • Reynolds, M., Tarter, R., Kirisci, L., Kirillova, G., Brown, S., Clark, D. (2007). Testosterone level and sexual maturation predict substance use disorders in adolescent boys: A prospective study. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 1223–1227.
  • Rice, J. P., Cloninger, C. R., & Reich, T. (1980). General causal models for sex differences in the familial transmission of multifactorial traits: An application to human spatial visualizing ability. Social Biology, 26, 36–47.
  • Robins, L. N. (1966). Deviant children grow up: A sociological and psychiatric study of sociopathic personality. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
  • Rutter, M. (2000). Psychosocial influences: Critiques, findings, and research needs. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 375–405.
  • Sapolsky, R., Krey, L., & McEwen, B. (1985). Prolonged glucocorticoid exposure reduces hippocampal neuron number. Implications for aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 5, 1222–1227.
  • Scarpa, A., & Ollendick, T. (2003). Community violence exposure in a young adult sample, III: Psychophysiology and victimization interact to affect risk for aggression. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 321–338.
  • Schaal, N., Tremblay, R. E., Soussignan, R., & Susman, E. J. (1996). Male testosterone linked to high social dominance but low physical aggression in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1322–1330.
  • Schmid, B., Hohm, E., Blomyer, D., Zimmerman, U. S., Schmidt, M. H., Esser, G., (2007). Concurrent alcohol and tobacco use during early adolescence characterizes a group at risk. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 42, 219–225.
  • Schuckit, M. A., & Hesselbrock, V. (1994). Alcohol dependence and anxiety disorders: What is the relationship? American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1723–1734.
  • Schuckit, M. A. (2006). Comorbidity between substance use disorders and psychiatric conditions. Addiction, 101(Suppl. 1), 76–88.
  • Schweinsburg, A. D., Paulus, M. P., Barlett, V. C., Killeen, L. A., Caldwell, L. C., Pulido, C., (2004). An fMRI study of response inhibition in youths with a family history of alcoholism. In R. E. Dahl & L. P. Spear (Eds.), Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences: Vol. 1021. Adolescent brain development: Vulnerabilities and Opportunities. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
  • Shackett, B. L. (2006). Understanding the “lucky few”: The conundrum of HIV exposed seronegative individuals. Current HIV/AIDS Reports, 3, 26–31.
  • Sherman, D. K., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. K. (1997). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder dimensions: A twin study of inattention and impulsivity-hyperactivity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 745–753.
  • Sihvola, E., Rose, R. J., Dick, D. M., Pulkkinen, L., Marttunen, M., & Kaprio, J. (2008). Early-onset depressive disorders predict the use of addictive substances in adolescence: A prospective study of adolescent Finnish twins. Addiction, 103, 2045–2053.
  • Simoni-Wastila, L., & Yang, H. K. (2006). Psychoactive drug abuse in older adults. The American Journal of Geriatric Pharmacotherapy, 4, 380–394.
  • Sloboda, Z. (2005). Implications of epidemiologic information for effective drug abuse prevention strategies. In Z. Sloboda, (Ed.), Epidemiology of drug abuse. New York: Springer.
  • Smart, R. (2007). Natural recovery or recovery without treatment from alcohol and any problems as seen from survey data. In H. Klingemann, & L. Carter-Sobell (Eds.), Promoting self change from addictive behaviors (pp. 59–71). New York: Springer.
  • Sobell, L. C., Ellingstad, T. P., & Sobell, M. D. (2000). Natural recovery from alcohol and drug problems: Methodological review of the research with suggestions for future direction. Addiction, 95, 749–764.
  • Stanton, W. R., Flay, B. R., Colder, C. R., & Mehta, P. (2004). Identifying and predicting adolescent smokers’ developmental trajectories. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6, 843–852.
  • Swendsen, J. D., & Merikangas, K. R. (2000). The comorbidity of depression and substance use disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 173–189.
  • Sydney Morning Herald. (2009). http://www.smh.com.au/national/ drug-use-on-rise-in-older-adults-20090612-c64l.html Retrieved October, 21, 2009.
  • Tarter, R. E., Ammerman, R. T., Ott, P. J. (Eds.). (1998). Handbook of substance abuse: Neurobehavioral pharmacology. New York, NY: Plenum-Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  • Tarter, R., Kirisci, L., Habeych, M., Reynolds, M., & Vanyukov, M. (2004). Neurobehavior disinhibition in childhood predisposes boys to substance use disorder by young adulthood: Direct and mediated etiologic pathways. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 73, 121–132.
  • Tarter, R., Vanyukov, M., Giancola, P., Dawes, M., Blackson T., Mezzich, A., (1999). Etiology of early age onset substance abuse: A maturational perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 657–683.
  • Tarter, R. E., Kirisci, L., Gavaler, J., Reynolds, M., Kirillova, G., Clark, D.,et al. (2009). Prospective study of the association between abandoned dwellings and testosterone level on the development of behaviors leading to cannabis use disorder in boys. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 116–121.
  • Tarter, R. E., Kirisci, L., Mezzich, A., Cornelius, J. R., Paier, K., Vanyukov, M., (2007). Neurobehavioral disinhibition in childhood predicts early age at onset of substance use disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1078–1085.
  • Tarter, R. E., & Vanyukov, M. M. (2001). Etiology of substance use disorder in children and adolescents. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press, Inc.
  • Thatcher, D. L., & Clark, D. R. (2008). Adolescents at risk for substance use disorders: Role of psychological dysregulation, endophenotypes, and environmental influences. Alcohol Research and Health, 31, 168–176.
  • Trudeau, L., Spoth, R., Lillehoj, C., Redmond, C., & Wickrama, K. A. S. (2003). Effects of a preventive intervention on adolescent substance use initiation, expectancies, and refusal intentions. Prevention Science, 4, 109–122.
  • Tsuang, M. T., Lyons, M. J., Meyer, J. M., Doyle, T., Eisen, S. A., Goldberg, J., (1998). Co-occurrence of abuse of different drugs in men: The role of drug-specific and shared vulnerabilities. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 967–972.
  • Van den Bree, M. B., Johnson, E. O., Neale, M. C., & Pickens, R. W. (1998). Genetic and environmental influences on drug use and abuse/dependence in male and female twins. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 52, 231–241.
  • van Goozen, S. H. M., Fairchild, G., Snoek, H., & Harold, G. T. (2007). The evidence for a neurobiological model of childhood antisocial behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 149–182.
  • Vanyukov, M., Kirisci, L., Moss, H., Tarter, R., Reynolds, M., Maher, B., (2009). Measurement of the risk for substance use disorders. Phenotypic and genetic analysis of an index of common liability. Behavior Genetics, 39, 233–244.
  • Vanyukov, M., Kirisci, L., Tarter, R., Simkevitz, H., Kirillova, G., Maher, B., (2003b). Liability to substance use disorders: 2. A measurement approach. Neuroscience and Biobehavior Reviews, 27, 517–526.
  • Vanyukov, M., Moss, H., Plail, J., Blackson, T., Mezzich, A., & Tarter, R. (1993). Antisocial symptoms in preadolescent boys and their parents: Associations with cortisol. Psychiatric Research, 46, 9–17.
  • Vanyukov, M., Tarter, R., Kirisci, L., Kirillova, G., Maher, B., & Clark, D. (2003a). Liability to substance use disorders. 1. Common mechanisms and manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavior Reviews, 27, 507–515.
  • Verdejo-Garcia, A., Lawrence, A. J., & Clark, L (2008). Impulsivity as a vulnerability marker for substance-use disorders: Review of findings from high-risk research, problem gamblers and genetic association studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 777–810.
  • Wagner, F. A., & Anthony, J. C. (2002). From first drug use to drug dependence: Developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Neuropsychopharmacology, 26, 479–488.
  • Waldorf, D., Murphy, S., & Reinarman, C. (1991). Cocaine changes: The experience of using and quitting. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
  • Wechsler, H., & Nelson, T. F. (2008). What we have learned from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study: Focusing attention on college student alcohol consumption and the environmental conditions that promote it. Journal of Studies of Alcohol and Drugs, 69, 481–490.
  • Weinberger, D. R., Elvevag, B., & Gledd, J. N. (2005). The adolescent brain: A work in progress. Washington, D.C.: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.
  • Wells, J. E., Horwood, L. J., & Fergusson, D. M. (2004). Drinking patterns in mid-adolescence and psychosocial outcomes in late adolescent and early adulthood. Addiction, 99, 1529–1541.
  • Wigle, D. T., Arbuckle, T. E., Turner, M. C., Berube, A., Yang, Q., Lui, S., (2008). Epidemiologic evidence of relationships between reproductive and child health outcomes. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health B. Critical Reviews, 11, 373–517.
  • Williams, C., & Latkin, C. (2007). Neighborhood socioeconomic status, personal network attributes, and use of Heroin and Cocaine. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32, S203–S210.
  • Williams, J. M., & Dunlap, L. C. (1999). Pubertal timing and self-reported delinquency among male adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 157–171.
  • Wills, T. A., & Dishion, T. J. (2004). Temperament and adolescent substance use: A transactional analysis of emerging self-control. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 69–81.
  • Windle, M., & Wiesner, M. (2004). Trajectories of marijuana use from adolescence to young adulthood: Predictors and outcome. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1007–1027.
  • Winick, C. (1962). Maturing out of narcotic addiction. Bulletin on Narcotics, 14, 1–7.
  • Winstanley, E. L., Steinwachs, D. M., Ensminger, M. E., Latkin, C. A., Stitzer, M. L., & Olsen, Y. (2008). The association of self-reported neighborhood disorganization and social capital with adolescent alcohol and drug use, dependence, and access to treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 92, 173–182.
  • Yehuda, R., Halligan, S., & Grossman, R. (2001). Childhood trauma and risk for PTSD: Relationship to intergenerational effects of trauma, parental PTSD, and cortisol excretion. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 733–753.
  • Youngblade, L. M., Theokas, C., Schulenberg, J., Curry, L., Huang, I. C., & Novak, M. (2007). Risk and promotive factors in families, schools and communities: A contextual model of positive youth development in adolescence. Pediatrics, 119, S547–S553.
  • Zhu, H., Kartiko, S., & Finnell, R. H. (2009). Importance of gene-environment interactions in the etiology of selected birth defects. Clinical Genetics, 75, 409–423.
  • Zimmermann, P., Wittchen, H.-U., Höfler, M., Pfister, H., Kessler, R. C., & Lieb, R. (2003). Primary anxiety disorders and the development of subsequent alcohol use disorders: A 4-year community study of adolescents and young adults. Psychological Medicine, 33, 1211–1222.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.