Rejection Attitudes, Poor Parental Bonding, and Stressful Life Events in Heroin Addicts’ Families

REFERENCES

• Afifi, T. O., Enns, M. W., Cox, B. J., Asmundson, G. J. G., Stein, M. B., & Sareen, J. (2008). Population attributable fractions of psychiatric disorders and suicide ideation and attempts associated with adverse childhood experiences. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 946–952.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ainsworth, M. D. (1985a). Patterns of infant-mother attachments: Antecedents and effects on development. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 61, 771–791.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ainsworth, M. D. (1985b). Attachment across the life span. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 61, 792–813.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alvarez-Jimenez M., Gleeson J. F., Cotton S. M., Wade D., Crisp K., Yap M. B. H., McGorry P. D. (2010). Differential predictors of critical comments and emotional over-involvement in first-episode psychosis. Psychological Medicine, 40, 63–72.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alvarez, M. J., Roura, P., Oses, A., Foguet, Q., Sola, J. & Arrufat, F. X. (2011). Prevalence and clinical impact of childhood trauma in patients with severe mental disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 199, 156–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrowclough, C. R. & Tarrier, N. (1990). Social functioning in schizophrenic patients: I. The effects of expressed emotion and family interventions. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 25, 125–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bebbington, P., Wilkins S, Sham, P., Jones, P., van Os J, Murray, R., …Lewis, S. (1996). Life events before psychotic episodes: Do clinical and social variables affect the relationship? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 31, 122–128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernardi, E., Jones, M., & Tennant, C. (1989). Quality of parenting in alcoholics and narcotic addicts. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 677–682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertrando, P., Cecchin, G., Clerici, M., Beltz, J., Milesi, A., & Cazzullo, C. F. (2006). Expressed emotion and Milan systemic intervention: A pilot study on families of people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Journal of Family Therapy, 28, 81–102.
   Google Scholar
• Bowlby, J. (1979). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. London: Tavistock. [Bowlby, J. (1982). Costruzione e rottura dei legami affettivi. Milano: Cortina].
   Google Scholar
• Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Attachment, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. London: Hogarth Press [Bowlby, J. (1989). Attaccamento e perdita. Vol.1. L'attaccamento alla madre. Torino: Bollati Boringhieri].
   Google Scholar
• Butters, J. E. (2002). Family stressors and adolescent cannabis use: A pathway to problem use. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 645–654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cancrini, L. (1996). The psychopathology of drug addiction: A review. ITACA, 1, 7–38.
   Google Scholar
• Cancrini, L., Cingolani, S., Compagnoni, F., Costantini, D., Mazzoni, S. (1988). Juvenile drug addiction and their families. Family Process, 27, 261–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carra’ G., Clerici, M., Ghodse, H., Poldrugo, F. & el-Guebaly, N. (2009). Family issues in the field of addiction treatment. In A. Browne-Miller (Ed.): The praeger international collection on addiction. Characteristics and treatment perspectives (pp. 129–139). Westport: Praeger Publishers. .
   Google Scholar
• Cerbone, F. G., & Larison, C. L. (2000). A bibliographic essay: The relationship between stress and substance use. Substance Use & Misuse, 35(5), 757–786.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clerici, M., Albertini, P., Bertrando, P., Ferrarini, F., Merati, O., Steiner, V., & Cazzullo, C. L. (1993). Emotivita’ Espressa familiare nei disturbi da uso di sostanze. Rivista di Riabilitazione Psichiatrica e Psicosociale, II(3), 137–147.
   Google Scholar
• Clerici, M., Bertrando, P., Garavaglia, R., & Cazzullo, C. L. (1994). Families with an heroin addicted member. A study of their emotional profile. Psichiatria Hungarica, IX(2), 129–136.
   Google Scholar
• Cirillo, S., Berini, R., Cambiaso, G., & Mazza, R. (1996). La famiglia del tossicodipendente. Milano: Cortina.
   Google Scholar
• Cooklin, A. (2006). Children of parents with mental illness. In L. Combrinck-Graham (Ed.): Children in family contexts: Perspectives on treatment, 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cullberg, J. (2003). Stressful life events preceding the first onset of psychosis. An explorative study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 57, 209–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doane, J., Hill, L., & Diamond, D. (1991). A developmental view of therapeutic bonding in the family: Treatment of the disconnected family. Family Process, 30, 155–175.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Doane, J. A., & Diamond, D. (1994). Affect and attachment in the family. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Eitle, D. (2005). The moderating effects of peer substance use on the family structure-adolescent substance use association: Quantity versus quality of parenting. Addictive Behaviors, 30, 963–980.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enoch, M. A. (2011). The role of early stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 17–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ensminger, M. E., Juon, H. S., & Fothergill, K. E. (2002). Childhood and adolescent antecedents of substance use in adulthood. Society for the Study of Addiction to Alcohol and Other Drugs, 97, 833–844.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2013). European Drug Report. Trends and developments. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
   Google Scholar
• Favaretto, E., Torresani, S., & Zimmermann, C. (2001). Further results on the reliability of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) in an Italian sample of schizophrenic patients and their parents. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57(1), 119–129.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2008). The developmental antecedents of illicit drugs use: Evidence from a 25-year longitudinal study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 96, 165–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, S., Smith, L., Fogel, D., Paradis, C., Wiswanathan, R., Ackerman, R., & Trappler, B. (2002). The incidence and influence of early traumatic life events in patients with panic disorder: A comparison with other psychiatric outpatients. Anxiety Disorders, 16, 259–272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia, J. A. B. (2011). Description and limitations of instruments for the assessment of expressed emotion. Papeles del Psicologo, 32(2), 152–158.
   Google Scholar
• Gerra, G., Angioni, L., Zaimovic, A., Moi, G., Bussandri, M., Bertacca, S., …Nicoli, M. A. (2004). Substance use among high –school students: Relationships with temperament, personality traits and parental care perception. Substance Use & Misuse, 39(2), 345–367.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein, M. J. & Miklowitz, D. J. (1995). The effectiveness of psychoeducational family therapy in the treatment of schizophrenia. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 21(4), 361–376.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greek Reitox National Focal Point (2013). Annual national report 2012. Athens: University Mental Health Research Institute (in greek).
   Google Scholar
• Green, J., McLaughlin, K. A., Berglund, P. A., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication I: Associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(2), 113–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haley, J. (1980). Leaving home: The therapy of disturbed young people. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Henry, K. L. (2008). Low prosocial attachment, involvement with drug-using peers and adolescent drug use: A longitudinal examination of mediational mechanisms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22(2), 302–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooley, J. M., & Parker, H. A. (2006). Measuring expressed emotion: An evaluation of the shortcuts. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 386–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horton, E. G., Diaz, N., Peluso, P. R., Mullanty, D., Weiner, M., & Mcllveen, J. W. (2009). Relationships between trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, dissociative symptoms, and lifetime heroin use among individuals who abuse substances in residential treatment. Journal of Addictions & Offender Counseling, 29, 81–95.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, P., Venulet, J., Khant, U., Medina Mora, M., Navaratnam, V., & Poshyachinda, V. (1980). Core data for epidemiological studies on non medical-drug users. Geneve: WHO Offset Publication, No.56.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Chen, H., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2006). Parenting behaviors associated with risk for offspring personality disorder during adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 579–587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassel, J. D., Wardle, M., & Roberts, J. E. (2007). Adult attachment security and college student substance use. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 1164–1176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman, E., & Yioshioka, M. R. M. (2004). Substance abuse treatment and family therapy. A Treatment Improvement Protocol. TIP39. Rockville MD: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. www.samhsa.gov
   Google Scholar
• Kokkevi, A., & Stefanis, C. (1988). Parental rearing patterns and drug abuse. Preliminary report. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 78, 151–157.
   Google Scholar
• Kokkevi, A., Stefanis, C., Anastasopoulou, E., & Kostogianni, C. (1998). Personality disorders in drug abusers: Prevalence and their association with Axis I disorders as predictors of treatment retention. Addictive Behaviors, 23(6), 841–853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kostelecky, K. L. (2005). Parental attachment, academic achievement, life events and their relationship to alcohol and drug use during adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 665–669.
   Google Scholar
• Kreisman, D. E., Simmens, S. J., & Joy, V. D. (1979). Rejecting the patient: Preliminary validation of a self-report scale. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 5, 220–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreisman, D., Blumenthal, R., Borenstein, M., Woerner, M., Kane, J., Rifkin, A., & Reardon, G. (1988). Family attitudes and patient social adjustment in a longitudinal study of outpatient schizophrenics receiving low-dose neuroleptics: The family's view. Psychiatry, 51, 3–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liappas, J., Pomini, V., Kokkevi, A., Papavasiliou, P., & Stefanis, C. (1996). Users contacting a drug clinic in Greece. I: Profile of the users. ITACA, 2, 39–48.
   Google Scholar
• Liappas, J., Pomini, V., Kokkevi, A., Papavasiliou, P., & Stefanis, C. (1997). Users contacting a drug clinic in Greece. II: Users’ criminal activities. ITACA, 1, 29–38.
   Google Scholar
• Liappas, J., Paparrigopoulos, T., Tzavellas, E., & Christodoulou, G. N. (2001). Psychiatric comorbidity in addictions: An update. Psychiatriki, 12, 215–222 ( in greek).
   Google Scholar
• Losasso, D., Mastrangelo, F., & Clerici, M. (1999). Interventi informativi e terapeutici per familiari nel SERT. Complessita’ dei bisogni e articolazioni delle offerte. ITACA, 8, 48–66.
   Google Scholar
• Lucksted, A., McFarlane, W., Downing, D., Dixon, L., & Adams, C. (2012). Recent developments in family psychoeducation as an evidence-based practice. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 38(1), 101–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcucci, M., & Belardinelli, M. (2002). Il legame affectionless control e lo sviluppo della dipendenza da oppiacei. Ecologia della Mente, 1(02), 5–18.
   Google Scholar
• Maremmani, I., Pani, P. P., Pacini, M., Bizzarri, J. V., Trogu, E., Maremmani, A. I., & Dell'Osso, L. (2010). Subtyping patients with heroin addiction at treatment entry: Factor derived from the self-report symptom inventory (SCL-90). Annals of General Psychiatry, 9, 15. doi: 10.1186/1744-859X-9-15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marom, S., Munitz, H., Jones, P. B., Weizman, A., & Hermesh, H. (2005). Expressed emotion: Relevance to rehospitalization in schizophrenia over 7 years. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 31, 751–758.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mavreas, V. G., Tomaras, V., Karydi, V., Economou, M., & Stefanis, C. N. (1992). Expressed emotion in families of chronic schizophrenics and its association with clinical measures. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 27, 4–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayberry, M. L., Espelage, D. L., & Koening, B. (2009). Multilevel modeling of direct effects and interactions of peers, parents, school and community influences on adolescent substance use. The Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1038–1049.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarlane, W. R., Dixon, L., Lukens, E., & Lucksted, A. (2003). Family psychoeducation and schizophrenia: A review of the literature. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 29(2), 223–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLellan, A. T., O'Brien, C. P., Lewis, D., & Kleber, H. D. (2000). Drug addiction as a chronic medical illness: Implications for treatment, insurance and evaluation. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284, 1689–1695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendenhall, T. J., & Bergeb, J. M. (2010). Family therapists in trauma-response teams: Bringing systems thinking into interdisciplinary fieldwork. Journal of Family Therapy, 32, 43–57.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Murray, R., Lappin, G., & Di Forti, M. (2008). Schizophrenia: From the developmental deviance to dopamine dysregulation. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 18, 129–134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oxford, M. L., Harachi, T. W., Catalano, R. F., & Abbott, R. D. (2000). Preadolescent predictors of substance initiation: A test of both the direct and mediated effect of family social control factors on deviant peer associations and substance initiation. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 27(4), 599–616.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paley, G., Shapiro, D. A., & Worrall-Davies, A. (2000). Familial origins of expressed emotion in relatives of people with schizophrenia. Journal of Mental Health, 9, 655–663.
   Google Scholar
• Parker, G., Tulpin, H., & Brown, L. B. (1979). A parental bonding instrument. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 52, 1–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, G., Fairly, M., Greenwood, J., Jurd, S., & Silove, D. (1982). Parental representations of schizophrenics and their association with onset and course of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 573–581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peirce, J. M., Kindbom, K. A., Waesche, M. C., Yuscavage, A. S. E., & Brooner, R. K. (2008). Gender: Posttraumatic stress syndrome. Posttraumatic stress disorder, gender and problem profiles in substance dependent patients. Substance Use & Misuse, 43, 596–611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R., & Miller, T. Q. (1995). Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces in the puzzle. Psychological Bulletin, 17(1), 67–86.
   Google Scholar
• Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R., Miller, T. Q., Torpy, E. J., & Greiner, B. (1998). Illicit substance use among adolescents: A matrix of prospective predictors. Substance Use & Misuse, 33(13), 2561–2604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Read, J., Van Os, J., Morrison, A. P., & Ross, C. A. (2005). Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: A literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 112, 330–350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, M., Mezey, G., Chapman, M., Wheeler, M., Drummond, C., & Baldacchino, A. (2005). Co-morbid post-traumatic stress disorder in a substance misusing clinical population. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 77, 251–258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowe, R., Maughan, B., & Eley, T. C. (2006). Links between antisocial behavior and depressed mood: The role of life events and attributional style. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(3), 293–302.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rowe, C. L. (2012). Family therapy for drug abuse: Review and updates 2003–2010. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 38(1), 59–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rugani, F., Maremmani, A. G., Rovai, L., Mautone, S., Perugi, G., Pani, P. P., …Maremmani, I. (2011). Life events (loss and traumatic) and emotional response to them in heroin-dependent patients before and after the dependence age of onset. Heroin Addiction & Related Clinical Problems, 13, 17–26.
   Google Scholar
• Schafer, I. & Fischer, H. L. (2011). Childhood trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with psychosis: Clinical challenges and emerging treatments. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 24, 514–518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schindler, A., Thomasius, R., Sack, P. M., Gemeinhardt, B., & Kustner, U. (2007). Insecure family bases and adolescent drug abuse: A new approach to family patterns of attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 9(2), 111–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweitzer, R. D., & Lawton, P. A. (1989). Drug abusers’ perceptions of their parents. British Journal of Addiction, 84, 309–314.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sinha R. (2008). Chronic stress, drug use, and vulnerability to addiction. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1141, 105–130.
   Google Scholar
• Stanton, M. D., Todd, T. C., & Associates (1982). The family therapy of drug abuse and addiction. New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stefanis, C. N., & Kokkevi, A. (1986). Depression and drug use. Psychopathology, 19 (2), 124–131.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tobler, A. L., & Komro, K. A. (2010). Trajectories of parental monitoring and communication and effects on drug use among urban young adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46, 560–568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomaras, V. (1993). Family interventions in schizophrenia. In T. Sensky, C. Katona & S. Montgomery (Eds.), Psychiatry in Europe: Directions and developments. London: Gaskell.
   Google Scholar
• Tomaras, V., Mavreas, V., Economou, M., Ioannovich, E., Karydi, V., & Stefanis, C. (2000). The effect of family intervention on chronic schizophrenics under individual psychosocial treatment: A 3-year study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35, 487–493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torresani, S., Favaretto, E., & Zimmermann, C. (2000). Parental representations in drug-dependent patients and their parents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41(2), 123–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, R. J. & Lloyd, D. A. (1995). Lifetime traumas and mental health: The significance of cumulative adversity. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(4), 360–376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ustun, B., Compton, W., Mager, D., Babor, T., Balyeawu, O., Chattenji, S., …Sartorius, N. (1997). WHO study of the reliability and validity of the alcohol and drug use disorder instruments: Overview of methods and results. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 47, 161–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn, G., & Leff, J. (1976). The influence of family and social factors on the course of psychiatric illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 125–137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh, F. (2007). Traumatic loss and major disasters: Strengthening family and community resilience. Family Process, 46, 207–227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watts, M. (2007). High expressed emotion: Precipitating relapse in substance misuse disorders. British Journal of Nursing, 16(22), 1396–1398.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wiechelt, S. A. (2007). Trauma and substance misuse: Critical considerations in understanding the Maelstrom. Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 527–533.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willinger, U., Heiden, A. M., Meszaros, K., Formann, A. K., & Aschauer, H. N. (2002). Maternal bonding behavior in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder, considering premorbid personality traits. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36, 663–668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, H. W., & Spatz Widom, C. (2009). A prospective examination of the path from child abuse and neglect to illicit drug use in middle adulthood: The potential mediating role of four risk factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 340–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (1993). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva: WHO.
   Google Scholar
• Zalsman, G., Posmanik, S., Fischel, T., Horesh, N., Gothelf, D., Gal, G., …Apter, A. (2004). Psychosocial situations, quality of depression and schizophrenia in adolescents. Psychiatry Research, 129, 149–157.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar