The Role of Emotion Regulation Difficulties in the Relation Between PTSD Symptoms and the Learned Association Between Trauma-Related and Cocaine Cues

References

• American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Ames, S. L., Franken, I. H., & Coronges, K. (2006). Implicit cognition and drugs of abuse. In R. W. Weirs & A. W. Stacy (Eds.), Handbook of implicit cognition and addiction (pp. 363–378). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Back, S. E., Brady, K. T., Jaanimagi, U., & Jackson, J. L. (2006). Cocaine dependence and PTSD: A pilot study of symptom interplay and treatment preferences. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 351–354.
   Google Scholar
• Back, S., Dansky, B. S., Coffey, S. F., Saladin, M. E., Sonne, S., & Brady, K. T. (2000). Cocaine dependence with and without posttraumatic stress disorder: A comparison of substance use, trauma history and psychiatric comorbidity. The American Journal on Addictions, 9, 51–62.
   Google Scholar
• Baker, T. B., Piper, M. E., McCarthy, D. E., Majeskie, M. R., & Fiore, M. C. (2004). Addiction motivation reformulated: An affective processing model of negative reinforcement. Psychological Review, 111, 33–51.
   Google Scholar
• Ball, S. A. (1995). The validity of an alternative five-factor measure of personality in cocaine abusers. Psychological Assessment, 7, 148–154.
   Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252–1265.
   Google Scholar
• Berenz, E. C., Rowe, L., Schumacher, J. A., Stasiewicz, P. R., & Coffey, S. F. (2012). Prolonged exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder among individuals in a residential substance use treatment program: A case series. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43, 154–161.
   Google Scholar
• Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L. M., Kaloupek, D. G., Gusman, F. D., Charney, D. S., & Keane, T. M. (1995). The development of a clinician-administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 75–90.
   Google Scholar
• Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L., Kaloupek, D. G., Klauminzer, G., Charney, D. S., & Keane, T. M. (1990). The clinician administered PTSD scale. Boston, MA: National Center for PTSD-Behavioral Science Division.
   Google Scholar
• Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T. C., & Forneris, C. A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 669–673.
   Google Scholar
• Bremner, J. D., Southwick, S. M., Darnell, A., & Charney, D. S. (1996). Chronic PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans: Course of illness and substance abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 369–375.
   Google Scholar
• Brewerton, T. D. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder and disordered eating: Food addiction as self-medication. Journal of Women's Health, 20, 1133–1134.
   Google Scholar
• Broman-Fulks, J. J., Ruggiero, K. J., Green, B. A., Kilpatrick, D. G., Danielson, C., Resnick, H., & Saunders, B. E. (2006). Taxometric investigation of PTSD: Data from two nationally representative samples. Behavior Therapy, 37, 364–380.
   Google Scholar
• Carmassi, C., Bertelloni, C. A., Massimetti, G., Miniati, M., Stratta, P., Rossi, A., & Dell, L. (2015). Impact of DSM-5 PTSD and gender on impaired eating behaviors in 512 Italian earthquake survivors. Psychiatry Research, 225, 64–69.
   Google Scholar
• Carpenter, K. M., Martinez, D., Vadhan, N. P., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Nunes, E. V. (2012). Measures of attentional bias and relational responding are associated with behavioral treatment outcome for cocaine dependence. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 38, 146–154.
   Google Scholar
• Coffey, S. F., Gudleski, G. D., Saladin, M. E., & Brady, K. T. (2003). Impulsivity and rapid discounting of delayed hypothetical rewards in cocaine-dependent individuals. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11, 18–25.
   Google Scholar
• Coffey, S. F., Saladin, M. E., Drobes, D. J., Brady, K. T., Dansky, B. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2002). Trauma and substance cue reactivity in individuals with comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and cocaine or alcohol dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 65, 115–127.
   Google Scholar
• de Wit, H. (2009). Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use: A review of underlying processes. Addiction Biology, 14, 22–31.
   Google Scholar
• DePrince, A. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2004). Forgetting trauma stimuli. Psychological Science, 15, 488–492.
   Google Scholar
• Ehring, T., & Quack, D. (2010). Emotion regulation difficulties in trauma survivors: The role of trauma type and PTSD symptom severity. Behavior Therapy, 41, 587–598.
   Google Scholar
• Engelhard, I. M., Huijding, J., van den Hout, M. A., & de Jong, P. J. (2007). Vulnerability associations and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in soldiers deployed to Iraq. Behavior Research and Therapy, 45, 2317–2325.
   Google Scholar
• Fiedler, K., Messner, C., & Bluemke, M. (2006). Unresolved problems with the “I”, the “A”, and the “T”: A logical and psychometric critique of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). European Review of Social Psychology, 17, 74–147.
   Google Scholar
• Field, M., Mogg, K., Zetteler, J., & Bradley, B. P. (2004). Attentional biases for alcohol cues in heavy and light social drinkers: The roles of initial orienting and maintained attention. Psychopharmacology, 176, 88–93.
   Google Scholar
• Fox, H. C., Axelrod, S. R., Paliwal, P., Sleeper, J., & Sinha, R. (2007). Difficulties in emotion regulation and impulse control during cocaine abstinence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 89, 298–301.
   Google Scholar
• Fritz, M. S., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2007). Required sample size to detect the mediated effect. Psychological Science, 18, 233–239.
   Google Scholar
• Gratz, K. L., Chapman, A. L., Dixon-Gordon, K. L., & Tull, M. T. (2016). Exploring the association of deliberate self-harm with emotional relief using a novel implicit association test. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment.
   Google Scholar
• Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26, 41–54.
   Google Scholar
• Gratz, K. L., & Tull, M. T. (2010). Emotion regulation as a mechanism of change in acceptance-and mindfulness-based treatments. In R. A. Baer (Ed.), Assessing mindfulness and acceptance processes in clients: Illuminating the theory and practice of change (pp. 107–133). Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Gray, M. J., Litz, B. T., Hsu, J. L., & Lombardo, T. W. (2004). Psychometric properties of the Life Events Checklist. Assessment, 11, 330–341.
   Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.
   Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2001). Health of the implicit association test at age 3. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, 85–93.
   Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197–216.
   Google Scholar
• Grubaugh, A. L., Elhai, J. D., Cusack, K. J., Wells, C., & Frueh, B. C. (2007). Screening for PTSD in public-sector mental health settings: The diagnostic utility of the PTSD Checklist. Depression and Anxiety, 24, 124–129.
   Google Scholar
• Harrington, T., & Newman, E. (2007). The psychometric utility of two self-report measures of PTSD among women substance users. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2788–2798.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76, 408–420.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. (1996). Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1152–1168.
   Google Scholar
• Houben, K., Nosek, B. A., & Wiers, R. W. (2010). Seeing the forest through the trees: A comparison of different IAT variants measuring implicit alcohol associations. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 106, 204–211.
   Google Scholar
• Kahler, C. W., Daughters, S. B., Leventhal, A. M., Gwaltney, C. J., & Palfai, T. P. (2007). Implicit associations between smoking and social consequences among smokers in cessation treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2066–2077.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.
   Google Scholar
• Khantzian, E. J. (1997). The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4, 231–244.
   Google Scholar
• Lane, K. A., Banaji, M. R., Nosek, B. A., & Greenwald, A. G. (2007). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: IV. What we know (so far). In B. Wittenbrink & N. S. Schwarz (Eds.), Implicit measures of attitudes: Procedures and controversies (pp. 59–102). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leeies, M., Pagura, J., Sareen, J., & Bolton, J. M. (2010). The use of alcohol and drugs to self-medicate symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 731–736.
   Google Scholar
• McCarthy, D. E., Curtin, J. J., Piper, M. E., & Baker, T. B. (2010). Negative reinforcement: Possible clinical implications of an integrative model. In J. Kassel (Ed.), Substance abuse and emotion (pp. 15–42). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• McDermott, M. J., Tull, M. T., Gratz, K. L., Daughters, S. B., & Lejuez, C. W. (2009). The role of anxiety sensitivity and difficulties in emotion regulation in posttraumatic stress disorder among crack/cocaine dependent patients in residential substance abuse treatment. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 591–599.
   Google Scholar
• McNally, R. J., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Clancy, S. A., & Pitman, R. K. (1998). Directed forgetting of trauma cues in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 596–601.
   Google Scholar
• Moeller, F. G., Dougherty, D. M., Barratt, E. S., Schmitz, J. M., Swann, A. C., & Grabowski, J. (2001). The impact of impulsivity on cocaine use and retention in treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 21, 193–198.
   Google Scholar
• Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-control as a limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 774–789.
   Google Scholar
• Najavits, L. M., Gastfriend, D. R., Barber, J. P., Reif, S., Muenz, L. R., Blaine, J., & Weiss,R. D. (1998). Cocaine dependence with and without PTSD among subjects in the National Institute on Drug Abuse Collaborative Cocaine Treatment Study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 214–219.
   Google Scholar
• Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: II. Method variables and construct validity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 166–180.
   Google Scholar
• Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2007). The implicit association test at age 7: A methodological conceptualization review. In J. A. Bargh (Ed.), Automatic process in social thinking and behavior (pp. 265–292). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Palfai, T. P., & Ostafin, B. D. (2003). Alcohol-related motivational tendencies in hazardous drinkers: Assessing implicit response tendencies using the modified-IAT. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1149–1162.
   Google Scholar
• Palmieri, P. A., Weathers, F. W., Difede, J., & King, D. W. (2007). Confirmatory factor analysis of the PTSD Checklist and the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale in disaster workers exposed to the World Trade Center Ground Zero. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 329–341.
   Google Scholar
• Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717–731.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Reviews, 18, 247–291.
   Google Scholar
• Roth, J., Steffens, M. C., Morina, N., & Stangier, U. (2011). Changed for the worse: Subjective change in implicit and explicit self-esteem in individuals with current, past, and no posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 81, 64–66.
   Google Scholar
• Rothermund, K., & Wentura, D. (2004). Underlying processes in the implicit association test: Dissociating salience from associations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 139–165.
   Google Scholar
• Rucker, D. R., Preacher, K. J., Tormala, Z. L., & Petty, R. E. (2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 359–371.
   Google Scholar
• Stewart, J., de Wit, H., & Eikelboom, R. (1984). Role of unconditioned and conditioned drug effects in the self-administration of opiates and stimulants. Psychological Review, 91, 251–268.
   Google Scholar
• Stewart, S. H., Pihl, R. O., Conrod, P. J., & Dongier, M. (1998). Functional associations among trauma, PTSD, and substance-related disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 797–812.
   Google Scholar
• Tripp, J. C., & McDevitt-Murphy, M. E. (2015). Emotion dysregulation facets as mediators of the relationship between PTSD and alcohol misuse. Addictive Behaviors, 47, 55–60.
   Google Scholar
• Tripp, J. C., McDevitt-Murphy, M. E., Avery, M. L., & Bracken, K. L. (2015). PTSD symptoms, emotion dysregulation, and alcohol-related consequences among college students with a trauma history. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 11, 107–117.
   Google Scholar
• Tull, M. T., Barrett, H. M., McMillan, E. S., & Roemer, L. (2007). A preliminary investigation of the relationship between emotion regulation difficulties and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 38, 303–313.
   Google Scholar
• Tull, M. T., Gratz, K. L., Aklin, W. M., & Lejuez, C. W. (2010). A preliminary examination of the relationships between posttraumatic stress symptoms and crack/cocaine, heroin, and alcohol dependence. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 55–62.
   Google Scholar
• Tull, M. T., Kiel, E. J., McDermott, M. J., & Gratz, K. L. (2013). The effect of trauma cue exposure on cocaine cravings among cocaine dependent inpatients with and without posttraumatic stress disorder: Exploring the mediating role of negative affect and discrete negative emotional states. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 4, 485–501.
   Google Scholar
• Tull, M. T., McDermott, M. J., Gratz, K. L., Coffey, S. F., & Lejuez, C. W. (2011). Cocaine-related attentional bias following trauma cue exposure among cocaine dependent inpatients with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Addiction, 106, 1810–1818.
   Google Scholar
• Tull, M. T., Trotman, A., Duplinsky, M. S., Reynolds, E. K., Daughters, S. B., Potenza, M. N., & Lejuez, C. W. (2009). The effect of posttraumatic stress disorder on risk-taking propensity among crack/cocaine users in residential substance abuse treatment. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 1158–1164.
   Google Scholar
• Waldrop, A. E., Back, S. E., Verduin, M. L., & Brady, K. T. (2007). Triggers for cocaine and alcohol use in the presence and absence of posttraumatic stress disorder. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 634–639.
   Google Scholar
• Wasserman, D. A., Havassy, B. E., & Boles, S. M. (1997). Traumatic events and post-traumatic stress disorder in cocaine users entering private treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 46, 1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993, October). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. In Annual Convention of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. San Antonio, TX: International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., Anestis, M. D., & Gratz, K. L. (2013). The relative and unique contributions of emotion dysregulation and impulsivity to posttraumatic stress disorder among substance dependent inpatients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 128, 45–51.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., Viana, A. G., Anestis, M. D., & Gratz, K. L. (2012). Impulsive behaviors as an emotion regulation strategy: Examining associations between PTSD, emotion dysregulation, and impulsive behaviors among substance dependent inpatients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 453–458.
   Google Scholar
• Wiers, R. W., Houben, K., & de Kraker, J. (2007). Implicit cocaine associations in active cocaine users and controls. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 1284–1289.
   Google Scholar