Twenty years of cholinergic intervention in Alzheimer's disease: A tale of disappointment and ultimate confidence

References

• Davies P, Maloney A J. Selective loss of central cholinergic neurons in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 1976; ii: 1400–05
   Google Scholar
• Bartus B T, Dean R L, Beer B. The cholinergic hypothesis of geriatric memory dysfunction. Science 1982; 217: 408–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry E K, Gibson P H, Blessed G, et al. Neurotransmitter enzyme abnormalities in senile dementia-choline acetyltransferase and glutamic acid decarboxylase activities in necropsy brain tissue. J Neural Sci 1977; 34: 247–65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry E K, Tomlinson B E, Blessed G, et al. Correlation of cholinergic abnormalities with senile plaques and mental test scores in senile dementia. Br Med J 1978; ii: 1457–9
   Google Scholar
• Whitehouse P J, Price D L, Clark A W, et al. Alzheimer's disease: evidence for selective loss of cholinergic neurons in the nucleus basalis. Ann Neurol 1981; 10: 122–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutzky H, Deutsch J A. Memory enhancement by anticholinesterase as a function of initial learning. Nature 1967; 210: 742
   Google Scholar
• Duvoiain R C, Katz R. Reversal of central anticholinergic syndrome in man by physostigmine. JAMA 1968; 206: 1963–65
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Whiteley A, Signoret J L, Agid Y, Lhermitte F. Action de la choline sur les troubles mnesiques de la maladie d'Alzheimer. Rev Neurol Paris 1979; 135: 565–72
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levy B, Little A, Chuaqui-Kidd P. Early results from a double-blind placebo-controlled trial of high-dose phosphatidylcholine in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 1983; i: 987–8
   Google Scholar
• Little A, Levy B, Chuaqui-Kidd P, Hand D. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of high-dose lecithin in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1985; 48: 736–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacabelos R, Caamano J, Gomez M J, et al. Therapeutic effects of CDP-choline in Alzheimer's disease: cognition, brain mapping, cerebrovascular hemodynamics, and immune factors. Ann NY Acad Sci 1996; 777: 399–403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sano M, Bell K, Cote L, et al. Double-blind parallel design pilot study of acetyl levocamitine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1992; 49: 1137–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson M, Zemishlany Z, Mohs R C, et al. 4-Aminopyridine in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 1988; 23: 485–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huff F J. Preliminary evaluation of besipirdine for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Ann NY Acad Sci 1996; 770: 410–4
   Google Scholar
• Huff F J, Antuono P G, Delagandara J E, et al. A treatment and withdrawal trial of besipirdine in Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer's Disease Assoc Disorders 1996; 10: 93–102
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rockwood K, Beattie B L, Eastwood M R, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of linopirdine in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Can J Neurol Sci 1997; 24: 140–5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barnes J M, Barnes N M, Costall B, et al. 5-HT3 receptors mediate inhibition of acetylcholine release in cortical tissue. Nature 1989; 388: 762–3
   Google Scholar
• Whitehouse P J, Martino A M, Antuono P G. Nicotine acetylcholine binding sites in Alzheimer disease. Brain 1986; 371: 146–51
   Google Scholar
• Williams M. Purinergic drugs: Opportunities in the 1990's. Drug Devel Res 1993; 28: 438–44
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asthana S, Greig N H, Holloway H W, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of arecoline in subjects with Akheimer's disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996; 60: 276–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wettstein A, Spiegal R. Clinical studies with the cholinergic drug RS-86 in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and senile dementia of Alzheimer type (SDAT). Psychopharmacol 1984; 34: 572–3
   Google Scholar
• Bruno G, Mohr E, Gillespie M. RS-86 in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1985; 43: 659–61
   Google Scholar
• Hollander E, Davidson M, Mohs R C, et al. RS-86 in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: cognitive and biological effects. Biol Psychiatric 1987; 22: 1067–78
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoover T M, Breslin E. The “bridging study” in the clinical development of milameline (C1–979/RU35926), a novel muscarinic agent. Neurobiol Aging 1988; 17: 139
   Google Scholar
• Kumar R, Orgogozo J. Efficacy and safety of SB 202026 as a symptomatic treatment for Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 1996; 17: 161
   Google Scholar
• Mucke H AM. Xanomeline. Current Res Alzheimer's Dis 1998; 3: 65–72
   Google Scholar
• Bodick N C, Offen W W, Levey A L, et al. Effects of xanomeline, a selective muscarinic receptor agonist, on cognitive function and behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neural 1997; 54: 465–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caltagirone C, Gainotti G, Masullo C. Oral administration of chronic physostigmine does not improve cognitive or mnemic performances in Alzheimer's presenile dementia. Int J Neurosci 1982; 16: 247–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohs R C, Davis B M, Johns C A, et al. Oral physostigmine treatment of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142: 28–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thai L J, Schwartz G, Sano M, et al. A multicenter double-blind study of controlled-release physostigmine for the treatment of symptoms secondary to Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1996; 47: 1389–95
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heilbronn E. Inhibition of cholinesterases by tetrahy-droamino acridine. Acta Chem Scand 1961; 15: 1386–90
   Google Scholar
• Summers W K, Viesselman J O, Marsh G M, Candelora K. Use of THA in treatment of Alzheimer-like dementia: Pilot study in twelve patients. Biol Psychiatry 1981; 16: 145–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summers W K, Majovski L V, Marsh G M, et al. Oral tetrahydroaminoacridine in long-term treatment of senile dementia, Alzheimer type. N Engl J Med 1986; 315: 1241–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nybaeck H, Hassan M, Junthe M, Hlin A. Clinical experiences and biochemical findings with tacrine (THA). Acta Neurol Scand 1993; 149: 36–8
   Google Scholar
• Ames D, Bhatal P S, Davies B, Eraser P E. Hepatotoxicity of tetrahydroacridine. Lancet 1988; i: 887
   Google Scholar
• Hammel P, Larrey D, Bernau J. Acute hepatitis after tetrahydroaminoacridine administration for Alzheimer's disease. J Clin Gastroenterol 1990; 12: 329–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkins P B, Zimmerman H J, Knapp M J, et al. Hepatotoxic effects of tacrine administration in patients with Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1994; 271: 993–8
   Google Scholar
• Knapp M J, Gracon S I, Davies C S, et al. Efficacy and safety of high-dose tacrine: a 30-week evaluation. Alzheimer's Dis Assoc Disorders 1994; 8: 22–31
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knapp M J, Knopman D S, Solomon P R, et al. A 30-week randomized controlled trial of high-dose tacrine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1994; 271: 985–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raskind M A, Sadowsky C H, Sigmund W R, et al. Effect of tacrine on language, praxis, and noncognitive behavioral problems in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 1997; 54: 836–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moriearty P M. Transdermal delivery of cholinesterase inhibitors: rationale and therapeutic potential. CNS Drugs 1995; 4: 323–34
   Google Scholar
• Antuono P G. Effectiveness and safety of velnacrine for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155: 1766–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zemlan F P, Keys M, Richter R W, Strub R L. Double-blind placebo-controlled study on velnacrine in Alzheimer's disease. Life Sci 1996; 58: 1823–1832
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mihara M, Ohnishi A, Tomono Y, et al. Pharmacokinetics of E2020, a new compound for Alzheimer's disease, in healthy male volunteers. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1993; 31: 223–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rogers S L, Friedhoff L T. The efficacy and safety of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease: results of a US multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (Donepezil Study Group). Dementia 1996; 7: 293–303
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bryson H M, Benfield P. Donepezil. Drugs Aging 1997; 10: 234–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers S L, Farlow M R, Doody R S, et al. A 24-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease (Donepezil Study Group). Neurology 1998; 50: 136–45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers S L, Friedhoff L T. Long-term efficacy and safety of donepezil in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: an interim analysis of the results of a US multicentre open label extension study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1998; 8: 67–75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross J S, Shua-Haim J R. Aricept-induced nightmares in Alzheimer's disease: 2 case reports [letter]. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998; 46: 119–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anand R, Gharabawi G, Hayes P. An overview of the development of SDZ EN A 713, a brain selective cholinesterase inhibitor. Fourth International Nice/Springfield Symposium on Advances in Alzheimer Therapy. CNS Dept, Sandoz Pharmaceutical Corp, E. Hannover, NJ. USA 1996; 07936–1080
   Google Scholar
• Anand R, Gharabawi G, Enz A. Efficacy and safety results of the early phase studies with Exelon (ENA-713) in Alzheimer's disease: An overview. J Drug Dev Clin Pract 1996; 8: 1–8
   Google Scholar
• Canal N, Imbimbo B P. Relationship between pharmacodynamic activity and cognitive effects of eptastigmine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Clin Phamacol Ther 1996; 60: 218–28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mucke H AM. Metrifonate. Drugs Fut 1998; 23: 491–7
   Google Scholar
• Hinz V C, Grewig S, Schmidt B H. Metrifonate and dichlorvos: effects of a single oral administration on cholinesterase activity in rat brain and blood. Neurochem Res 1996; 21: 339–45
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taylor P. Anticholinesterase agents. The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics8th edn., A G Gilman, T W Rail, A S Nies, P Taylor. Pergamon Press, New York 1990; 131–149
   Google Scholar
• Becker R E, Colliver J A, Markwell S J, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of metrifonate, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, for Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer's Dis Assoc Disorders 1996; 10: 124–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mucke H AM. Preclinical studies with galanthamine. Drugs of Today 1997; 33: 259–64
   Google Scholar
• Berzewski H, Kewitz H, Davis B M, et al. Galanthamine, a selective nontoxic centrally acting and reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, for the treatment of SDAT. XIXth Coll Int Neuropsychopharmacol Congress. June 27-July 1, 1994
   Google Scholar
• Kewitz H. Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of galanthamine. Drugs. of Today 1997; 33: 265–72
   Google Scholar
• Wilcock G K, Scott M, Pearsall T, et al. Galanthamine and the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1993; 8/9: 781–2
   Google Scholar
• Wilcock G, Wilkinson D. Galanthamine hydrobromide-interim results of a group comparative, placebo controlled, study of efficacy and safety in patients with a diagnosis of senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type. Neurobiol Aging 1996; 17: 144
   Google Scholar
• Rainer M. Clinical studies with galanthamine. Drugs of Today 1997; 33: 273–9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar