663
Views
13
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
ORIGINAL ARTICLES

Assisted Cycling Therapy (ACT) improves inhibition in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder

, &

References

  • Adams, N. C., & Jarrold, C. (2009). Inhibition and the validity of the Stroop task for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1112–1121. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0721-8
  • Alberts, J. L., Linder, S. M., Penko, A. L., Lowe, M. J., & Phillips, M. (2011). It is not about the bike, it is about the pedaling: Forced exercise and Parkinson's disease. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 39, 177–186. doi:10.1097/jes.0b013e31822cc71a
  • Alivisatos, B., & Milner, B. (1989). Effects of frontal or temporal lobectomy on the use of advance information in a choice reaction time task. Neuropsychologia, 27, 495–503. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(89)90054-7
  • Alvarez, J. A., & Emory, E. (2006). Executive function and the frontal lobes: A meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology Review, 16, 17–42. doi:10.1007/s11065-006-9002-x
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
  • Anderson, G. M. (1994). Studies on the neurochemistry of autism. In M. L. Bauman & T. L. Kemper (Eds.), The neurobiology of autism (pp. 227–242). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Anderson-Hanley, C., Tureck, K., & Schneiderman, R. L. (2011). Autism and exergaming: Effects on repetitive behaviors and cognition. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 4, 129–137. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S24016
  • Antoni, M. H., Cruess, S., Cruess, D. G., Kumar, M., Lutgendorf, S., Ironson, G., … & Schneiderman, N. (2000). Cognitive–behavioral stress management reduces distress and 24-hour urinary free cortisol output among symptomatic HIV-infected gay men. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22, 29–37. doi:10.1007/BF02895165
  • Artiges, E., Salamé, P., Recasens, C., Poline, J.-B., Attar-Levy, D., De la Raillère, A., … & Martinot, J.-L. (2000). Working memory control in patients with schizophrenia: A PET study during a random number generation task. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1517–1519. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.9.1517
  • Barbas, H. (2000). Connections underlying the synthesis of cognition, memory, and emotion in primate prefrontal cortices. Brain Research Bulletin, 52, 319–330. doi:10.1016/S0361-9230(99)00245-2
  • Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H. A., Wheelwright, S., Bullmore, E. T., Brammer, M. J., Simmons, A., & Williams, S. C. R. (1999). Social intelligence in the normal and autistic brain: An fMRI study. European Journal of Neuroscience, 11, 1891–1898. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00621.x
  • Bebko, J. M., Konstantareas, M. M., & Springer, J. (1987). Parent and professional evaluations of family stress associated with characteristics of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 17, 565–576. doi:10.1007/BF01486971
  • Belmonte, M. K., Cook, E. H., Jr., Anderson, G. M., Rubenstein, J. L. R., Greenough, W. T., Beckel-Mitchener, A., … & Tierney, E. (2004). Autism as a disorder of neural information processing: Directions for research and targets for therapy. Molecular Psychiatry, 9, 646–663. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001499
  • Budde, H., Voelcker-Rehage, C., Pietraßyk-Kendziorra, S., Ribeiro, P., & Tidow, G. (2008). Acute coordinative exercise improves attentional performance in adolescents. Neuroscience Letters, 441, 219–223. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2008.06.024
  • Buddenberg, L. A., & Davis, C. (2000). Test–retest reliability of the Purdue Pegboard Test. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 54, 555–558. doi:10.5014/ajot.54.5.555
  • Carper, R. A., & Courchesne, E. (2000). Inverse correlation between frontal lobe and cerebellum sizes in children with autism. Brain, 123, 836–844. doi:10.1093/brain/123.4.836
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years — Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2010. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Series, Surveillance Summaries, 63(SS02), 1–21. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6302a1.htm?s_cid=ss6302a1_w
  • Chang, Y.-K., Liu, S., Yu, H.-H., & Lee, Y.-H. (2012). Effect of acute exercise on executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27, 225–237. doi:10.1093/arclin/acr094
  • Chen, C.-C., Ringenbach, S. D. R., & Albert, A. R. (2014). Assisted cycling exercise improves fine manual dexterity in persons with Down's syndrome. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 27, 264–272. doi:10.1111/jar.12061
  • Coles, K., & Tomporowski, P. D. (2008). Effects of acute exercise on executive processing, short-term and long-term memory. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, 333–344. doi:10.1080/02640410701591417
  • Cornil, A., De Coster, A., Copinschi, G., & Franckson, J. R. M. (1965). Effect of muscular exercise on the plasma level of cortisol in man. Acta Endocrinologica, 48, 163–168. doi:10.1530/acta.0.0480163
  • Cotman, C. W., & Engesser-Cesar, C. (2002). Exercise enhances and protects brain function. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 30, 75–79. doi:10.1097/00003677-200204000-00006
  • Cruess, D. G., Antoni, M. H., McGregor, B. A., Kilbourn, K. M., Boyers, A. E., Alferi, S. M., … & Kumar, M. (2000). Cognitive-behavioral stress management reduces serum cortisol by enhancing benefit finding among women being treated for early stage breast cancer. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 304–308. doi:10.1097/00006842-200005000-00002
  • Culbertson, W. C., & Zillmer, E. A. (1998). The construct validity of the Tower of London DX as a measure of the executive functioning of ADHD children. Assessment, 5, 215–226. doi:10.1177/107319119800500302
  • Demakis, G. J. (2004). Frontal lobe damage and tests of executive processing: A meta-analysis of the Category Test, Stroop Test, and Trail-Making Test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26, 441–450. doi:10.1080/13803390490510149
  • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
  • Duclos, M., Corcuff, J.-B., Arsac, L., Moreau-Gaudry, F., Rashedi, M., Roger, P., … & Manier, G. (1998). Corticotroph axis sensitivity after exercise in endurance-trained athletes. Clinical Endocrinology, 48, 493–501. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2265.1998.00334.x
  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, D. M. (2007). PPVT-4: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
  • Egan, M. F., Goldberg, T. E., Kolachana, B. S., Callicott, J. H., Mazzanti, C. M., Straub, R. E., … Weinberger, D. R. (2001). Effect of COMT Val108/158 Met genotype on frontal lobe function and risk for schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 6917–6922. doi:10.1073/pnas.111134598
  • Ellemberg, D., & St. Louis-Deschênes, M. (2010). The effect of acute physical exercise on cognitive function during development. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 122–126. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.09.006
  • Ernst, M., Zametkin, A. J., Matochik, J. A., Pascualvaca, D., & Cohen, R. M. (1997). Low medial prefrontal dopaminergic activity in autistic children. Lancet, 350, 638. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)63326-0
  • Ettlin, T. M., Kischka, U., Beckson, M., Gaggiotti, M., Rauchfleisch, U., & Benson, D. F. (2000). The Frontal Lobe Score: Part I: construction of a mental status of frontal systems. Clinical Rehabilitation, 14, 260–271. doi:10.1191/026921500669635136
  • Fals-Stewart, W. (1992). An interrater reliability study of the Trail Making Test (Parts A and B). Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74, 39–42. doi:10.2466/pms.1992.74.1.39
  • Few, J. D. (1974). Effect of exercise on the secretion and metabolism of cortisol in man. Journal of Endocrinology, 62, 341–353. doi:10.1677/joe.0.0620341
  • Field, T. (1990, April). Newborn behavior, vagal tone and catecholamine activity in cocaine exposed infants. Symposium presented at the International Society of Infant Studies, Montreal, Canada.
  • Field, T., Morrow, C., Valdeon, C., Larson, S., Kuhn, C., & Schanberg, S. (1992). Massage Reduces Anxiety in Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Patients. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 125–131. doi: 10.1097/00004583-199201000-00019
  • Fisher, B. E., Petzinger, G. M., Nixon, K., Hogg, E., Bremmer, S., Meshul, C. K., & Jakowec, M. W. (2004). Exercise-induced behavioral recovery and neuroplasticity in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-lesioned mouse basal ganglia. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 77, 378–390. doi:10.1002/jnr.20162
  • Foley, T. E., & Fleshner, M. (2008). Neuroplasticity of dopamine circuits after exercise: Implications for central fatigue. NeuroMolecular Medicine, 10, 67–80. doi:10.1007/s12017-008-8032-3
  • Fournier, K. A., Hass, C. J., Naik, S. K., Lodha, N., & Cauraugh, J. H. (2010). Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: A synthesis and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1227–1240. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3
  • Freeman, N. L., Perry, A., & Factor, D. C. (1991). Child behaviours as stressors: Replicating and extending the use of the CARS as a measure of stress: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1025–1030. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1991.tb01927.x
  • Garfin, D. G., McCallon, D., & Cox, R. (1988). Validity and reliability of the Childhood Autism Rating Scale with autistic adolescents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18, 367–378. doi:10.1007/BF02212193
  • Goekint, M., Roelands, B., Heyman, E., Njemini, R., & Meeusen, R. (2011). Influence of citalopram and environmental temperature on exercise-induced changes in BDNF. Neuroscience Letters, 494, 150–154. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2011.03.001
  • de Hamsher, K., & Benton, A. L. (1977). The reliability of reaction time determinations. Cortex, 13, 306–310. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(77)80040-3
  • Happé, F., Booth, R., Charlton, R., & Hughes, C. (2006). Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain and Cognition, 61, 25–39. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2006.03.004
  • Heller, T. (2001). Self-Efficacy Scale. In T. Heller, B. A. Marks, & S. H. Ailey (Eds.), Exercise and nutrition education curriculum for adults with developmental disabilities. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Aging and Developmental Disabilities, Department of Disability and Human Development.
  • Heller, T., Hsieh, K., & Rimmer, J. H. (2004). Attitudinal and psychosocial outcomes of a fitness and health education program on adults with Down syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 109, 175–185. doi: 10.1352/0895-8017(2004)109<175:AAPOOA>2.0.CO;2
  • Heller, T., & Prohaska, T. (2001). Exercise Perceptions Scale. In T. Heller, B. A. Marks, & S. H. Ailey (Eds.), Exercise and nutrition education curriculum for adults with developmental disabilities. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Aging and Developmental Disabilities, Department of Disability and Human Development.
  • Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 58–65. doi:10.1038/nrn2298
  • Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Castelli, D. M., Hall, E. E., & Kramer, A. F. (2009). The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience, 159, 1044–1054. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.01.057
  • Hillman, C. H., Snook, E. M., & Jerome, G. J. (2003). Acute cardiovascular exercise and executive control function. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 48, 307–314. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(03)00080-1
  • Inui, N., Yamanishi, M., & Tada, S. (1995). Simple reaction times and timing of serial reactions of adolescents with mental retardation, autism, and Down syndrome. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81, 739–745. doi:10.2466/pms.1995.81.3.739
  • Jahanshahi, M., Dirnberger, G., Fuller, R., & Frith, C. D. (2000). The role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in random number generation: A study with positron emission tomography. NeuroImage, 12, 713–725. doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0647
  • Just, M. A., Cherkassky, V. L., Keller, T. A., Kana, R. K., & Minshew, N. J. (2007). Functional and anatomical cortical underconnectivity in autism: Evidence from an fMRI study of an executive function task and corpus callosum morphometry. Cerebral Cortex, 17, 951–961. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhl006
  • Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2002). The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: An individual-differences perspective. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 637–671. doi:10.3758/BF03196323
  • Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.
  • Keefe, R. S. E., Goldberg, T. E., Harvey, P. D., Gold, J. M., Poe, M. P., & Coughenour, L. (2004). The Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia: Reliability, sensitivity, and comparison with a standard neurocognitive battery. Schizophrenia Research, 68, 283–297. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2003.09.011
  • Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (1998). NEPSY: A developmental neuropsychological assessment. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
  • Kramer, A. F., Colcombe, S., Erickson, K., Belopolsky, A., McAuley, E., Cohen, N. J., … Wszalek, T. M. (2002). Effects of aerobic fitness training on human cortical function: A proposal. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 19, 227–231. doi:10.1007/s12031-002-0038-y
  • Kuoppasalmi, K., Näveri, H., Rehunen, S., Härkönen, M., & Adlercreutz, H. (1976). Effect of strenuous anaerobic running exercise on plasma growth hormone, cortisol, luteinizing hormone, testosterone, androstenedione, estrone and estradiol. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry, 7, 823–829. doi:10.1016/0022-4731(76)90185-0
  • Lambourne, K., & Tomporowski, P. (2010). The effect of exercise-induced arousal on cognitive task performance: A meta-regression analysis. Brain Research, 1341, 12–24. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.03.091
  • Leasure, J. L., & Jones, M. (2008). Forced and voluntary exercise differentially affect brain and behavior. Neuroscience, 156, 456–465. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.07.041
  • MacDonald, M., Esposito, P., & Ulrich, D. (2011). The physical activity patterns of children with autism. BMC Research Notes, 4, 422. doi:10.1186/1756-0500-4-422
  • McMorris, T., Collard, K., Corbett, J., Dicks, M., & Swain, J. P. (2008). A test of the catecholamines hypothesis for an acute exercise–cognition interaction. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 89, 106–115. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2007.11.007
  • Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 8–14. doi:10.1177/0963721411429458
  • Morgan, J. T., Chana, G., Pardo, C. A., Achim, C., Semendeferi, K., Buckwalter, J., … & Everall, I. P. (2010). Microglial activation and increased microglial density observed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 368–376. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.05.024
  • Nelson, L. A., Yoash-Gantz, R. E., Pickett, T. C., & Campbell, T. A. (2009). Relationship between processing speed and executive functioning performance among OEF/OIF veterans: Implications for postdeployment rehabilitation. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 24, 32–40. doi:10.1097/HTR.0b013e3181957016
  • Oriel, K. N., George, C. L., Peckus, R., & Semon, A. (2011). The effects of aerobic exercise on academic engagement in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 23, 187–193. doi:10.1097/PEP.0b013e318218f149
  • Ozonoff, S., & Jensen, J. (1999). Brief report: Specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29, 171–177. doi:10.1023/A:1023052913110
  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1081–1105. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1991.tb00351.x
  • Pachella, R. G. (1974). The interpretation of reaction time in information processing research. In B. H. Kantowitz (Ed.), Human information processing: Tutorials in performance and cognition (pp. 41–82). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Pan, C.-Y., & Frey, G. C. (2006). Physical activity patterns in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 597–606. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0101-6
  • Penedo, F. J., & Dahn, J. R. (2005). Exercise and well-being: A review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18, 189–193. doi:10.1097/00001504-200503000-00013
  • Perret, E. (1974). The left frontal lobe of man and the suppression of habitual responses in verbal categorical behaviour. Neuropsychologia, 12, 323–330. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(74)90047-5
  • Petzinger, G. M., Fisher, B., Hogg, E., Abernathy, A., Arevalo, P., Nixon, K., & Jakowec, M. W. (2006). Behavioral motor recovery in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-lesioned squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus): Changes in striatal dopamine and expression of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter proteins. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 83, 332–347. doi:10.1002/jnr.20730
  • Petzinger, G. M., Fisher, B. E., Van Leeuwen, J.-E., Vukovic, M., Akopian, G., Meshul, C. K., … & Jakowec, M. W. (2010). Enhancing neuroplasticity in the basal ganglia: The role of exercise in Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders, 25, S141–S145. doi:10.1002/mds.22782
  • Petzinger, G. M., Walsh, J. P., Akopian, G., Hogg, E., Abernathy, A., Arevalo, P., … & Jakowec, M. W. (2007). Effects of treadmill exercise on dopaminergic transmission in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-lesioned mouse model of basal ganglia injury. The Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 5291–5300. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1069-07.2007
  • Politis, M., Pavese, N., Tai, Y. F., Kiferle, L., Mason, S. L., Brooks, D. J., … & Piccini, P. (2011). Microglial activation in regions related to cognitive function predicts disease onset in Huntington's disease: A multimodal imaging study. Human Brain Mapping, 32, 258–270. doi:10.1002/hbm.21008
  • Porges, S. W. (1992). Autonomic regulation and attention. In B. A. Campbell, H. Hayne, & R. Richardson (Eds.), Attention and information processing in infants and adults: Perspectives from human and animal research (pp. 201–223). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Rasmussen, P., Brassard, P., Adser, H., Pedersen, M. V., Leick, L., Hart, E., … & Pilegaard, H. (2009). Evidence for a release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor from the brain during exercise. Experimental Physiology, 94, 1062–1069. doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2009.048512
  • Reitan, R. M., & Wolfson, D. (1993). Halstead-Reitan neuropsychological test battery: Theory and clinical interpretation. Tucson, AZ: Neuropsychology Press.
  • Ridgel, A. L., Vitek, J. L., & Alberts, J. L. (2009). Forced, not voluntary, exercise improves motor function in Parkinson's disease patients. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 23, 600–608. doi:10.1177/1545968308328726
  • Ringenbach, S. D., Chen, J. J., Albert, A. R., Semken, K., & Semper, L. (2012). Assisted exercise improves cognitive and motor functions in persons with Down syndrome [Abstract]. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34, S177–S178.
  • Ringenbach, S. D. R., Albert, A. R., Chen, C.-C., & Alberts, J. L. (2014). Acute bouts of assisted cycling improves cognitive and upper extremity movement functions in adolescents with Down syndrome. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 52, 124–135. doi:10.1352/1934-9556-52.2.124
  • Rojas Vega, S., Strüder, H. K., Vera Wahrmann, B., Schmidt, A., Bloch, W., & Hollmann, W. (2006). Acute BDNF and cortisol response to low intensity exercise and following ramp incremental exercise to exhaustion in humans. Brain Research, 1121(1), 59–65. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.08.105
  • Schnirman, G. M., Welsh, M. C., & Retzlaff, P. D. (1998). Development of the Tower of London—revised. Assessment, 5, 355–360. doi:10.1177/107319119800500404
  • Seidman, L. J., Valera, E. M., & Makris, N. (2005). Structural brain imaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1263–1272. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.019
  • Strauss, G. P., Allen, D. N., Jorgensen, M. L., & Cramer, S. L. (2005). Test-retest reliability of standard and emotional Stroop tasks: An investigation of color-word and picture-word versions. Assessment, 12, 330–337. doi:10.1177/1073191105276375
  • Stuss, D. T., Floden, D., Alexander, M. P., Levine, B., & Katz, D. (2001). Stroop performance in focal lesion patients: Dissociation of processes and frontal lobe lesion location. Neuropsychologia, 39, 771–786. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00013-6
  • Sutoo, D., & Akiyama, K. (2003). Regulation of brain function by exercise. Neurobiology of Disease, 13, 1–14. doi:10.1016/S0969-9961(03)00030-5
  • Tajiri, N., Yasuhara, T., Shingo, T., Kondo, A., Yuan, W., Kadota, T., … & Date, I. (2010). Exercise exerts neuroprotective effects on Parkinson's disease model of rats. Brain Research, 1310, 200–207. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.10.075
  • Thomas, J. R., & Nelson, J. K. (1996). Research methods in physical activity (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
  • Tomporowski, P. D. (2003). Effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition. Acta Psychologica, 112, 297–324. doi:10.1016/S0001-6918(02)00134-8
  • Vargas, D. L., Nascimbene, C., Krishnan, C., Zimmerman, A. W., & Pardo, C. A. (2005). Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Annals of Neurology, 57, 67–81. doi:10.1002/ana.20315
  • Waterhouse, L., Fein, D., & Modahl, C. (1996). Neurofunctional mechanisms in autism. Psychological Review, 103, 457–489. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.457
  • Welchew, D. E., Ashwin, C., Berkouk, K., Salvador, R., Suckling, J., Baron-Cohen, S., & Bullmore, E. (2005). Functional disconnectivity of the medial temporal lobe in Asperger's syndrome. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 991–998. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.028
  • Wickelgren, I. (2005). Autistic brains out of synch? Science, 308, 1856–1858. doi:10.1126/science.308.5730.1856
  • Zigmond, M. J., Cameron, J. L., Leak, R. K., Mirnics, K., Russell, V. A., Smeyne, R. J., & Smith, A. D. (2009). Triggering endogenous neuroprotective processes through exercise in models of dopamine deficiency. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 15(Suppl. 3), S42–S45. doi:10.1016/S1353-8020(09)70778-3

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.