Chronic Pain and Surgery: A Review of New Insights from Sensory Testing

REFERENCES

• Dolin SJ, Cashman JN, Bland JM. Effectiveness of acute postoperative pain management: I. Evidence from published data. Br J Anaesth. 2002;89:409–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apfelbaum JL, Chen C, Mehta SS, Gan TJ. Postoperative pain experience: results from a national survey suggest postoperative pain continues to be undermanaged. Anesth Analg. 2003;97:534–540.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins FM, Kehlet H. Chronic pain as an outcome of surgery. A review of predictive factors. Anesthesiology. 2000;93: 1123–1133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macrae WA. Chronic pain after surgery. Br J Anaesth. 2001;87: 88–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steegers MA, Wilder-Smith OH. [Late chronic pain after surgery is prevented with good perioperative analgesics]. Nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde. 2009;153:562–566.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bay-Nielsen M, Perkins FM, Kehlet H. Pain and functional impairment 1 year after inguinal herniorrhaphy: a nationwide questionnaire study. Ann Surg. 2001;233:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aasvang E, Kehlet H. Chronic postoperative pain: the case of inguinal herniorrhaphy. Br J Anaesth. 2005;95:69–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kehlet H, Jensen TS, Woolf CJ. Persistent postsurgical pain: risk factors and prevention. Lancet. 2006;367:1618–1625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crombie IK, Davies HT, Macrae WA. Cut and thrust: antecedent surgery and trauma among patients attending a chronic pain clinic. Pain. 1998;76:167–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz J, Seltzer Z. Transition from acute to chronic postsurgical pain: risk factors and protective factors. Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9:723–744.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerbershagen HJ, Dagtekin O, Rothe T, Risk factors for acute and chronic postoperative pain in patients with benign and malignant renal disease after nephrectomy. Eur J Pain. 2009;13:853–860.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pluijms WA, Steegers MA, Verhagen AF, Scheffer GJ, Wilder-Smith OH. Chronic post-thoracotomy pain: a retrospective study. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2006;50:804–808.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chesterton LS, Barlas P, Foster NE, Baxter GD, Wright CC. Gender differences in pressure pain threshold in healthy humans. Pain. 2003;101:259–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gran JT. The epidemiology of chronic generalized musculoskeletal pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2003;17: 547–561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staud R, Robinson ME, Vierck CJ Jr, Price DD. Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC) attenuate temporal summation of second pain in normal males but not in normal females or fibromyalgia patients. Pain. 2003;101:167–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arendt-Nielsen L, Bajaj P, Drewes AM. Visceral pain: gender differences in response to experimental and clinical pain. Eur J Pain. 2004;8:465–472.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rolke R, Baron R, Maier C, Quantitative sensory testing in the German Research Network on Neuropathic Pain (DFNS): standardized protocol and reference values. Pain. 2006;123:231–243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perttunen K, Tasmuth T, Kalso E. Chronic pain after thoracic surgery: a follow-up study. [see comment]. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1999;43:563–567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dajczman E, Gordon A, Kreisman H, Wolkove N. Long-term postthoracotomy pain [see comment]. Chest. 1991;99: 270–274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder-Smith OH, Arendt-Nielsen L. Postoperative hyperalgesia: its clinical importance and relevance. Anesthesiology. 2006;104:601–607.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalso E, Perttunen K, Kaasinen S. Pain after thoracic surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1992;36:96–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz J, Jackson M, Kavanagh BP, Sandler AN. Acute pain after thoracic surgery predicts long-term post-thoracotomy pain. Clin J Pain. 1996;12:50–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers ML, Duffy JP. Surgical aspects of chronic post-thoracotomy pain. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2000;18:711–716.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gotoda Y, Kambara N, Sakai T, Kishi Y, Kodama K, Koyama T. The morbidity, time course and predictive factors for persistent post-thoracotomy pain. Eur J Pain EJP. 2001;5: 89–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yegin A, Erdogan A, Kayacan N, Karsli B. Early postoperative pain management after thoracic surgery; pre- and postoperative versus postoperative epidural analgesia: a randomised study. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2003;24:420–424.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Quartana PJ, Buenaver LF, Edwards RR, Klick B, Haythornthwaite JA, Smith MT. Pain catastrophizing and salivary cortisol responses to laboratory pain testing in temporomandibular disorder and healthy participants. J Pain. 2010;11:186–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards RR, Fillingim RB, Maixner W, Sigurdsson A, Haythornthwaite J. Catastrophizing predicts changes in thermal pain responses after resolution of acute dental pain. J Pain. 2004;5:164–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards RR, Bingham CO 3rd, Bathon J, Haythornthwaite JA. Catastrophizing and pain in arthritis, fibromyalgia, and other rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Rheum. 15 2006;55: 325–332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards RR, Haythornthwaite JA, Smith MT, Klick B, Katz JN. Catastrophizing and depressive symptoms as prospective predictors of outcomes following total knee replacement. Pain Res Manag. 2009;14:307–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quartana PJ, Campbell CM, Edwards RR. Pain catastrophizing: a critical review. Expert Rev Neurother. 2009;9:745–758.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodin BR, McGuire L, Allshouse M, Associations between catastrophizing and endogenous pain-inhibitory processes: sex differences. J Pain. 2009;10:180–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paassilta P, Lohiniva J, Goring HH, Identification of a novel common genetic risk factor for lumbar disk disease. JAMA. 2001;285:1843–1849.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lotsch J, Geisslinger G. Are mu-opioid receptor polymorphisms important for clinical opioid therapy? Trends Mol Med. 2005;11:82–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogil JS, Miermeister F, Seifert F, Variable sensitivity to noxious heat is mediated by differential expression of the CGRP gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102: 12938–12943.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lotsch J, Geisslinger G. Current evidence for a genetic modulation of the response to analgesics. Pain. 2006;121:1–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stamer U, Bayerer B, Stuber F. [Genetics, pain and analgesia]. Anaesthesist. 2006;55:746–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diatchenko L, Nackley AG, Slade GD, Fillingim RB, Maixner W. Idiopathic pain disorders—pathways of vulnerability. Pain. 2006;123:226–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell CM, Edwards RR, Carmona C, Polymorphisms in the GTP cyclohydrolase gene (GCH1) are associated with ratings of capsaicin pain. Pain. 2009;141:114–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woolf CJ, Salter MW. Neuronal plasticity: increasing the gain in pain. Science. 2000;288:1765–1769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coderre TJ, Katz J, Vaccarino AL, Melzack R. Contribution of central neuroplasticity to pathological pain: review of clinical and experimental evidence. Pain. 1993;52:259–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melzack R, Coderre TJ, Katz J, Vaccarino AL. Central neuroplasticity and pathological pain. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001;933:157–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latremoliere A, Woolf CJ. Central sensitization: a generator of pain hypersensitivity by central neural plasticity. J Pain. 2009;10:895–926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanegas H, Schaible HG. Descending control of persistent pain: inhibitory or facilitatory? Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2004;46:295–309.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Porreca F, Ossipov MH, Gebhart GF. Chronic pain and medullary descending facilitation. Trends Neurosci. 2002;25:319–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gebhart GF. Descending modulation of pain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2004;27:729–737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandkuhler J. Understanding LTP in pain pathways. Mol Pain. 2007;3:9–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain mechanisms: a new theory. Science. 1965;150:971–979.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinricher MM, Tavares I, Leith JL, Lumb BM. Descending control of nociception: specificity, recruitment and plasticity. Brain Res Rev. 2009;60:214–225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martenson ME, Cetas JS, Heinricher MM. A possible neural basis for stress-induced hyperalgesia. Pain. 2009;142:236–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vera-Portocarrero LP, Xie JY, Kowal J, Ossipov MH, King T, Porreca F. Descending facilitation from the rostral ventromedial medulla maintains visceral pain in rats with experimental pancreatitis. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:2155–2164.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Le Bars D. The whole body receptive field of dorsal horn multireceptive neurones. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2002;40:29–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Bars D, Dickenson AH, Besson JM. Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC). II. Lack of effect on non-convergent neurones, supraspinal involvement and theoretical implications. Pain. 1979;6:305–327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Bars D, Dickenson AH, Besson JM. Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC). I. Effects on dorsal horn convergent neurones in the rat. Pain. 1979;6:283–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouhassira D, Bing Z, Le Bars D. Studies of brain structures involved in diffuse noxious inhibitory controls in the rat: the rostral ventromedial medulla. J Physiol. 1993;463:667–687.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Villanueva L, Le Bars D. The activation of bulbo-spinal controls by peripheral nociceptive inputs: diffuse noxious inhibitory controls. Biol Res. 1995;28:113–125.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Villanueva L, Bouhassira D, Le Bars D. The medullary subnucleus reticularis dorsalis (SRD) as a key link in both the transmission and modulation of pain signals. Pain. 1996;67:231–240.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yarnitsky D, Arendt-Nielsen L, Bouhassira D, Recommendations on terminology and practice of psychophysical DNIC testing. Eur J Pain. 2010;14:339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villanueva L. Diffuse Noxious Inhibitory Control (DNIC) as a tool for exploring dysfunction of endogenous pain modulatory systems. Pain. 2009;143:161–162.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Finniss DG, Kaptchuk TJ, Miller F, Benedetti F. Biological, clinical, and ethical advances of placebo effects. Lancet. 20 2010;375:686–695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benedetti F. No prefrontal control, no placebo response. Pain. 2010;148:357–358.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Enck P, Benedetti F, Schedlowski M. New insights into the placebo and nocebo responses. Neuron. 31 2008;59:195–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colloca L, Sigaudo M, Benedetti F. The role of learning in nocebo and placebo effects. Pain. 2008;136:211–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollo A, Benedetti F. The placebo response: neurobiological and clinical issues of neurological relevance. Prog Brain Res. 2009;175:283–294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruener G, Dyck PJ. Quantitative sensory testing: methodology, applications, and future directions. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1994;11:568–583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaslansky R, Yarnitsky D. Clinical applications of quantitative sensory testing (QST). J Neurol Sci. 8 1998;153:215–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder-Smith OH, Tassonyi E, Crul BJ, Arendt-Nielsen L. Quantitative sensory testing and human surgery: effects of analgesic management on postoperative neuroplasticity. Anesthesiology. 2003;98:1214–1222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong PS, Cros DP. Technology literature review: quantitative sensory testing. Muscle Nerve. 2004;29:734–747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pud D, Granovsky Y, Yarnitsky D. The methodology of experimentally induced diffuse noxious inhibitory control (DNIC)-like effect in humans. Pain. 2009;144:16–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Granot M, Weissman-Fogel I, Crispel Y, Determinants of endogenous analgesia magnitude in a diffuse noxious inhibitory control (DNIC) paradigm: do conditioning stimulus painfulness, gender and personality variables matter? Pain. 2008;136:142–149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rolke R, Magerl W, Campbell KA, Quantitative sensory testing: a comprehensive protocol for clinical trials. Eur J Pain. 2006;10:77–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder-Smith OH, Tassonyi E, Senly C, Otten P, Arendt-Nielsen L. Surgical pain is followed not only by spinal sensitization but also by supraspinal antinociception. Br J Anaesth. 1996;76:816–821.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder-Smith OH, Tassonyi E, Arendt-Nielsen L. Preoperative back pain is associated with diverse manifestations of central neuroplasticity. Pain. 2002;97:189–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Neill S, Manniche C, Graven-Nielsen T, Arendt-Nielsen L. Generalized deep-tissue hyperalgesia in patients with chronic low-back pain. Eur J Pain. 2007;11:415–420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lautenbacher S, Rollman GB, McCain GA. Multi-method assessment of experimental and clinical pain in patients with fibromyalgia. Pain. 1994;59:45–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosek E, Ekholm J, Hansson P. Increased pressure pain sensibility in fibromyalgia patients is located deep to the skin but not restricted to muscle tissue. Pain. 1995;63:335–339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lautenbacher S, Rollman GB. Possible deficiencies of pain modulation in fibromyalgia. Clin J Pain. 1997;13:189–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arendt-Nielsen L, Graven-Nielsen T. Central sensitization in fibromyalgia and other musculoskeletal disorders. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2003;7:355–361.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leffler AS, Kosek E, Lerndal T, Nordmark B, Hansson P. Somatosensory perception and function of diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC) in patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis. Eur J Pain. 2002;6:161–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosek E, Ordeberg G. Lack of pressure pain modulation by heterotopic noxious conditioning stimulation in patients with painful osteoarthritis before, but not following, surgical pain relief. Pain. 2000;88:69–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijs J, Van Houdenhove B. From acute musculoskeletal pain to chronic widespread pain and fibromyalgia: application of pain neurophysiology in manual therapy practice. Manual Ther. 2009;14:3–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossel P, Pedersen P, Niddam D, Arendt-Nielsen L, Chen AC, Drewes AM. Cerebral response to electric stimulation of the colon and abdominal skin in healthy subjects and patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2001;36:1259–1266.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mayer EA, Berman S, Chang L, Naliboff BD. Sex-based differences in gastrointestinal pain. Eur J Pain. 2004;8:451–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verne GN, Price DD. Irritable bowel syndrome as a common precipitant of central sensitization. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2002;4:322–328.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Buscher HC, Wilder-Smith OH, van Goor H. Chronic pancreatitis patients show hyperalgesia of central origin: a pilot study. Eur J Pain. 2006;10:363–370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dimcevski G, Staahl C, Andersen SD, Assessment of experimental pain from skin, muscle, and esophagus in patients with chronic pancreatitis. Pancreas. 2007;35:22–29.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dimcevski G, Sami SA, Funch-Jensen P, Pain in chronic pancreatitis: the role of reorganization in the central nervous system. Gastroenterology. 2007;132:1546–1556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giamberardino MA, Affaitati G, Lerza R, Lapenna D, Costantini R, Vecchiet L. Relationship between pain symptoms and referred sensory and trophic changes in patients with gallbladder pathology. Pain. 2005;114:239–249.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Tommaso M, Sardaro M, Vecchio E, Serpino C, Stasi M, Ranieri M. Central sensitisation phenomena in primary headaches: overview of a preventive therapeutic approach. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2008;7:524–535.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arendt-Nielsen L, Sluka KA, Nie HL. Experimental muscle pain impairs descending inhibition. Pain. 2008;140:465–471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pielsticker A, Haag G, Zaudig M, Lautenbacher S. Impairment of pain inhibition in chronic tension-type headache. Pain. 2005;118:215–223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder-Smith CH, Schindler D, Lovblad K, Redmond SM, Nirkko A. Brain functional magnetic resonance imaging of rectal pain and activation of endogenous inhibitory mechanisms in irritable bowel syndrome patient subgroups and healthy controls. Gut. 2004;53:1595–1601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Small DM, Apkarian AV. Increased taste intensity perception exhibited by patients with chronic back pain. Pain. 2006;120:124–130.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Klaver MJ, van Rijn MA, Marinus J, Soede W, de Laat JA, van Hilten JJ. Hyperacusis in patients with complex regional pain syndrome related dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78:1310–1313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tandon OP, Kumar S. P3 event related cerebral evoked potential in chronic pain patients. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1993;37:51–55.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Apkarian AV, Sosa Y, Krauss BR, Chronic pain patients are impaired on an emotional decision-making task. Pain. 2004;108:129–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baliki MN, Chialvo DR, Geha PY, Chronic pain and the emotional brain: specific brain activity associated with spontaneous fluctuations of intensity of chronic back pain. J Neurosci. 22 2006;26:12165–12173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apkarian AV, Baliki MN, Geha PY. Towards a theory of chronic pain. Prog Neurobiol. 2009;87:81–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maihofner C, Handwerker HO, Neundorfer B, Birklein F. Patterns of cortical reorganization in complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology. 2003;61:1707–1715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maihofner C, Handwerker HO, Neundorfer B, Birklein F. Cortical reorganization during recovery from complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology. 2004;63:693–701.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenberg E, Chistyakov AV, Yudashkin M, Kaplan B, Hafner H, Feinsod M. Evidence for cortical hyperexcitability of the affected limb representation area in CRPS: a psychophysical and transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Pain. 2005;113:99–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diers M, Koeppe C, Diesch E, Central processing of acute muscle pain in chronic low back pain patients: an EEG mapping study. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2007;24: 76–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd D, Findlay G, Roberts N, Nurmikko T. Differences in low back pain behavior are reflected in the cerebral response to tactile stimulation of the lower back. Spine. 2008;33:1372–1377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgmer M, Pogatzki-Zahn E, Gaubitz M, Fibromyalgia unique temporal brain activation during experimental pain: a controlled fMRI Study. J Neural Transm. 2010;117: 123–131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutz J, Jager L, de Quervain D, White and gray matter abnormalities in the brain of patients with fibromyalgia: a diffusion-tensor and volumetric imaging study. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58:3960–3969.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nebel MB, Gracely RH. Neuroimaging of fibromyalgia. Rheum Dis Clin N Am. 2009;35:313–327.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jensen KB, Kosek E, Petzke F, Evidence of dysfunctional pain inhibition in Fibromyalgia reflected in rACC during provoked pain. Pain. 2009;144:95–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pujol J, Lopez-Sola M, Ortiz H, Mapping brain response to pain in fibromyalgia patients using temporal analysis of FMRI. PloS One. 2009;4:e5224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgmer M, Pogatzki-Zahn E, Gaubitz M, Wessoleck E, Heuft G, Pfleiderer B. Altered brain activity during pain processing in fibromyalgia. NeuroImage. 2009;44:502–508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lotze M, Flor H, Grodd W, Larbig W, Birbaumer N. Phantom movements and pain. An fMRI study in upper limb amputees. Brain. 2001;124(Pt 11):2268–2277.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Apkarian AV, Sosa Y, Sonty S, Chronic back pain is associated with decreased prefrontal and thalamic gray matter density. J Neurosci. 2004;24:10410–10415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt-Wilcke T. Variations in brain volume and regional morphology associated with chronic pain. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2008;10:467–474.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burgmer M, Gaubitz M, Konrad C, Decreased gray matter volumes in the cingulo-frontal cortex and the amygdala in patients with fibromyalgia. Psychosom Med. 2009;71: 566–573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood PB, Glabus MF, Simpson R, Patterson JC 2nd. Changes in gray matter density in fibromyalgia: correlation with dopamine metabolism. J Pain. 2009;10:609–618.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Valet M, Gundel H, Sprenger T, Patients with pain disorder show gray-matter loss in pain-processing structures: a voxel-based morphometric study. Psychosom Med. 2009;71:49–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersson GB. Epidemiological features of chronic low-back pain. Lancet. 1999;354:581–585.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Tulder M, Koes B, Bombardier C. Low back pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2002;16:761–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hestbaek L, Leboeuf-Yde C, Manniche C. Low back pain: what is the long-term course? A review of studies of general patient populations. Eur Spine J. 2003;12:149–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manek NJ, MacGregor AJ. Epidemiology of back disorders: prevalence, risk factors, and prognosis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2005;17:134–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• den Boer JJ, Oostendorp RA, Beems T, Munneke M, Evers AW. Continued disability and pain after lumbar disc surgery: the role of cognitive-behavioral factors. Pain. 2006;123:45–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• den Boer JJ, Oostendorp RA, Beems T, Munneke M, Oerlemans M, Evers AW. A systematic review of bio-psychosocial risk factors for an unfavourable outcome after lumbar disc surgery. Eur Spine J. 2006;15:527–536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yarnitsky D, Crispel Y, Eisenberg E, Prediction of chronic post-operative pain: pre-operative DNIC testing identifies patients at risk. Pain. 2008;138:22–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavand'homme P, De Kock M, Waterloos H. Intraoperative epidural analgesia combined with ketamine provides effective preventive analgesia in patients undergoing major digestive surgery. Anesthesiology. 2005;103:813–820.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Kock M, Lavand'homme P, Waterloos H. 'Balanced analgesia' in the perioperative period: is there a place for ketamine? Pain. 2001;92:373–380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Kock M, Lavand'homme P, Waterloos H. The short-lasting analgesia and long-term antihyperalgesic effect of intrathecal clonidine in patients undergoing colonic surgery. Anesth Analg. 2005;101:566–572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder-Smith CH, Wilder-Smith OH, Farschtschian M, Naji P. Preoperative adjuvant epidural tramadol: the effect of different doses on postoperative analgesia and pain processing. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1998;42:299–305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder-Smith OH, Arendt-Nielsen L, Gaumann D, Tassonyi E, Rifat KR. Sensory changes and pain after abdominal hysterectomy: a comparison of anesthetic supplementation with fentanyl versus magnesium or ketamine. Anesth Analg. 1998;86:95–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freynhagen R, Baron R, Gockel U, Tolle TR. painDETECT: a new screening questionnaire to identify neuropathic components in patients with back pain. Curr Med Res Opin. 2006;22:1911–1920.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freynhagen R, Baron R, Tolle T, Screening of neuropathic pain components in patients with chronic back pain associated with nerve root compression: a prospective observational pilot study (MIPORT). Curr Med Res Opin. 2006;22: 529–537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freynhagen R, Rolke R, Baron R, Pseudoradicular and radicular low-back pain—a disease continuum rather than different entities? Answers from quantitative sensory testing. Pain. 12 2007;135:65–74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nikolajsen L, Gottrup H, Kristensen AG, Jensen TS. Memantine (a N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist) in the treatment of neuropathic pain after amputation or surgery: a randomized, double-blinded, cross-over study. Anesth Analg. 2000;91:960–966.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottrup H, Andersen J, Arendt-Nielsen L, Jensen TS. Psychophysical examination in patients with post-mastectomy pain. Pain. 2000;87:275–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikolajsen L, Kristensen AD, Thillemann TM, Pain and somatosensory findings in patients 3 years after total hip arthroplasty. Eur J Pain. 2009;13:576–581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baad-Hansen L, Arima T, Arendt-Nielsen L, Neumann-Jensen B, Svensson P. Quantitative sensory tests before and 1(1/2) years after orthognathic surgery: a cross-sectional study. J Oral Rehab. 2010;37:313–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder-Smith OH, Schreyer T, Scheffer GJ, Arendt-Nielsen L. Patients with chronic pain after abdominal surgery show less preoperative endogenous pain inhibition and more postoperative hyperalgesia: a pilot study. J Pain Pall Care Pharmacother. 2010;24:119–128.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Clarke H, Pereira S, Kennedy D, Adding gabapentin to a multimodal regimen does not reduce acute pain, opioid consumption or chronic pain after total hip arthroplasty. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2009;53:1073–1083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grover VK, Mathew PJ, Yaddanapudi S, Sehgal S. A single dose of preoperative gabapentin for pain reduction and requirement of morphine after total mastectomy and axillary dissection: randomized placebo-controlled double-blind trial. J Postgrad Med. 2009;55:257–260.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sen H, Sizlan A, Yanarates O, A comparison of gabapentin and ketamine in acute and chronic pain after hysterectomy. Anesth Analg. 2009;109:1645–1650.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sen H, Sizlan A, Yanarates O, The effects of gabapentin on acute and chronic pain after inguinal herniorrhaphy. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2009;26:772–776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chitour D, Dickenson AH, Le Bars D. Pharmacological evidence for the involvement of serotonergic mechanisms in diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC). Brain Res. 1982;236:329–337.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kraus E, Besson JM, Le Bars D. Behavioral model for diffuse noxious inhibitory controls (DNIC): potentiation by 5-hydroxytryptophan. Brain Res. 1982;231:461–465.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar