Sea level responses to climatic variability and change in northern British Columbia

References

• Allan , J.C. and Komar , P.D. 2002 . Extreme storms on the Pacific Northwest coast during the 1997–98 El Niño and 1998–99 La Niña . J. Coastal Res. , 18 : 175 – 193 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allan , J.C. and Komar , P.D. 2006 . Climate controls on US west coast erosion processes . J. Coastal Res. , 22 (3) : 511 – 529 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amos , C.L. , Barrie , J.V. and Judge , J.T. 1995 . “ Storm enhanced sand transport in a macrotidal setting, Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada ” . In Tidal Signature in Modern and Ancient Sediments Edited by: Flemming , B.W. and Bartoloma , A. Vol. 24 , 53 – 68 . Special Publication of the Int. Assoc. of Sedimentologists
   Google Scholar
• Barrie , J.V. and Conway , K.W. 1996 . Evolution of a nearshore and coastal macro tidal sand transport system, Queen Charlotte Islands, Canada. Special Publication . Geolog. Soc. London , 117 : 233 – 247 . doi:10.1016/S0037–0738(01) 00274–3
   Google Scholar
• Barrie , J.V. and Conway , K.W. 2002 . Rapid sea level change and coastal evolution on the Pacific Margin of Canada . J. Sedim. Geol. , 150 : 171 – 183 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beamish , R.J. , Neville , C.E. and Cass , A.J. 1997 . Production of Fraser River sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in relation to decadal‐scale changes in the climate and the ocean . Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci. , 54 : 543 – 554 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beamish , R.J. , Noakes , D.J. , McFriane , G.A. , Klyashtorin , L. , Ivanov , V.V. and Kurashov , V. 1999 . The regime concept and natural trends in the production of Pacific salmon . Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci. , 56 : 516 – 526 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond , N. A. , Overland , J.E. , Spillane , M. and Stabeno , P. 2003 . Recent shifts in the state of the North Pacific . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 30 : 2083
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowman , M.J. , Visser , A.W. and Crawford , W.R. 1992 . The Rose Spit Eddy in Dixon Entrance: Evidence for its existence and underlying dynamics . Atmosphere‐Ocean , 30 (1) : 70 – 93 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bijlsma , L. 1996 . “ Coastal zones and small islands ” . In Climate Change 1995 – Impact Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific – Technical Analysis , 289 – 324 . New York, NY, , USA : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cayan , D.R. and Webb , R.H. 1992 . “ El Niño/Southern Oscillation and stream flow in the western United States ” . In El Nino: Historical and paleoclimatic aspects of the Southern Oscillation , Edited by: Dias , H. and Markgraph , V. 29 – 68 . London, U. K. : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cazenave , A. , Dominh , K. , Gennero , M. C. and Ferret , B. 1998 . Global mean sea level changes observed by Topex‐Poseidon and ERS‐1 . Phys. Chem. Earth , 23 (9–10) : 1069 – 1075 .
   Google Scholar
• Chelton , D. B. and Enfield , D.B. 1986 . Ocean signals in tide gauge records . J. Geophys. Res. , 91 (B9) : 9081 – 9098 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Church , J.A. , Gregory , J.M. , Huybrechts , P. , Kuhn , M. , Lambeck , K. , Nhuan , M.T. , Qin , D. and Woodworth , P.L. 2001 . “ Changes in sea level ” . In Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , 881 UK. : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Church , J.A. and White , N.J. 2006 . 20th century acceleration in global sea‐level rise . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 33 : L01602 doi: 10.1029/2005GL024826
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coles , S.G. and Dixon , M.J. 1999 . Likelihood‐based inference for extreme value models . Extremes , 2 (1) : 5 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Crawford , W.R. 1998 . Variability of tidal currents in a wide strait: A comparison between drifter observations and numerical simulation . J. Geophys. Res. , 103 (C6) : 12743 – 12759 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford , W.R. , Cherniawsky , J. , Foreman , M. and Chandler , P. 1999 . El Niño sea level signal along the west coast of Canada. North Pacific Marine Science Organization (PICES) , Scientific Report No.10
   Google Scholar
• Dobrocky Seatech Ltd. 1987 . Wave climate study, northern coast of British Colombia , Environmental Studies Revolving Funds Report 059 93 Ottawa
   Google Scholar
• Donnelly , J.P. , Cleary , P. , Newby , P. and Ettinger , R. 2004 . Coupling instrumental and geological records of sea‐level change. Evidence from southern New England of an increase in the rate of sea level rise in the late 19th century . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 31 : L05203 doi: 10.1029/2003GL018933
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flather , R.A. , Smith , J.A. , Richards , J.D. , Bell , C. and Blackman , D.L. 1998 . Direct estimates of extreme storm surge elevations from a 40‐year numerical model simulation and from observations . Glob. Atmos. Ocean Sys. , 6 : 193 – 208 .
   Google Scholar
• Flick , R. E. and Cayan , D. R. Extreme sea levels on the coast of California . Proceedings of the 19th Coastal Engineering Conference . September 3–7 1984 , New York. pp. 886 – 898 . American Society of Civil Engineers .
   Google Scholar
• Gedalof , Z. and Smith , D. J. 2001 . Interdecadal climate variability and regime‐scale shifts in Pacific North America . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 28 : 1515 – 1518 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gershunov , A. and Barnet , T. P. 1998 . Interdecadal modulation of ENSO teleconnections . Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. , 79 : 2715 – 2725 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilleland , E. , Katz , R. and Young , G. 2003 . Extremes toolkit: Weather and climate applications of extreme value statistics , 99 USA : The National Center for Atmospheric Research Applications Laboratory . (NCAR)
   Google Scholar
• Goes , J.I. , Gomes , H.R. , Limasakul , A. , Balch , W.M. and Saino , T. 2001 . El Niño related interannual variations in biological production in the North Pacific as evidenced by satellite and ship data . Prog. Oceanog. , 49 : 211 – 225 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gornitz , V. 1991 . Global coastal hazards from future sea level rise . Glob. Planet. Change , 3 (4) : 379 – 398 .
   Google Scholar
• Graham , N. E. and Diaz , H. F. 2001 . Evidence for intensification of North Pacific winter cyclones since 1948 . Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. , 82 : 1869 – 1893 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grissino‐Mayer , H. D. and Swetnam , T. W. 2000 . Century scale climatic forcing of fire regimes in the American Southwest . Holocene , 10 : 213 – 220 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gumbel , E.J. 1958 . Statistics of Extremes , New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Henton , J.A. , Craymer , M.R. , Ferland , R. , Dragert , H. , Mazzotti , S. and Forbes , D.L. 2006 . Crustal motion and deformation monitoring of the Canadian landmass . Geomatica , 60 : 173 – 191 .
   Google Scholar
• Hessl , A.M. , McKenzie , D. and Schellhaas , R. 2004 . Drought and Pacific Decadal Oscillation linked to fire occurrence in the inland Pacific Northwest . Ecol. App. , 12 (2) : 425 – 442 .
   Google Scholar
• Kadioğlu , M. , Tulunay , Y. and Borhan , Y. 1999 . Variability of Turkish precipitation compared to El Niño events . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 26 (11) : 1597 – 1600 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahaya , E. and Dracup , J.A. 1993 . U.S. stream flow patterns in relation to the El Niño/Southern Osculation . Water Resour. Res. , 29 (8) : 2491 – 2503 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahaya , E. and Karabörk , M.C. 2001 . The analysis of El Niño and La Niña signals in stream flows of Turkey . Int. J. Climatol. , 21 : 1231 – 1250 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendall , M.G. 1976 . Rank Correlation Methods. , 4th Ed. , London : Griffin .
   Google Scholar
• Larsen , C.F. , Echelmeyer , K.A. , Freymueller , J.T. and Motyka , R.J. 2003 . Tide gauge records of uplift along the northern Pacific‐North American plate boundary, 1937 to 2001 . J. Geophys. Res. , 108 (B4) : 2216 doi: 10.1029/2001JB001685
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis , P.J. and Moran , M.D. 1985 . Severe storms off Canada's west coast: A catalogue summary for the period 1957 to 1983 , Canadian Climate Centre Report No. 85–7 Downsview, Ontario : AES .
   Google Scholar
• Maclaren Plansearch Limited and Oceanweather Inc. 1995 . Verification of wave model output versus measured wave data for the Great Lakes, east and west coast of Canada , Report prepared for Atmospheric Environment Service, Environment Canada, EC13 120
   Google Scholar
• Mantua , N. J. and Battisti , D. S. 1994 . Evidance for the delayed oscillator mechanism for ENSO: The “observed” oceanic Kelvin mode in the far western Pacific . J. Phys. Oceonogr. , 24 : 691 – 699 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantua , N.J. , Hare , S.R. , Zhang , Y. , Wallace , J.M. and Francis , R.C. 1997 . A Pacific interdecadal climate oscillation with impacts on salmon production . Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. , 78 : 1069 – 1079 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martins , E.S. and Stedinger , J.R. 2000 . Generalized maximum‐likelihood generalized extreme value quantile estimators for hydrological data . Water Resour. Res. , 36 (3) : 737 – 744 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazzotti , S. , Lambert , A. , Courtier , N. , Nykolaishen , L. and Dragert , H. 2007 . Crustal uplift and sea level rise in northern Cascadia from GPS, absolute gravity, and tide gauge data . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 34 : L15306 doi:10.1029/2007GL030283
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munk , W. 2003 . Ocean freshening, sea level rising . Science , 300 : 2041 – 2043 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murdoch , J. 1979 . Control charts , London, U.K. : Macmillan Press Ltd. .
   Google Scholar
• Noble , R. and Noble , M. 2006 . Alongshore wind forcing of coastal sea level as a function of frequency . J. Phys. Oceanogr. , 36 : 2173 – 2184 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papadopoulos , A. and Tsimplis , M.N. 2006 . Coherent coastal sea‐level variability at interdecadal and interannual scales from tide gauges . J. Coast. Res. , 2 (3) : 625 – 639 .
   Google Scholar
• Pernetta , J. C. 1992 . Impacts of climate change and sea‐level rise on small island states: National and international responses . Glob. Environ. Change , 2 (1) : 19 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prager , M.H. and Hoenig , J.M. 1989 . Superposed epoch analysis: a randomized test of environmental effects on recruitment with application to chum mackerel . Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. , 118 : 608 – 618 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pugh , D.T. and Vassie , J.M. Application of the joint probability method for extreme sea level computations . Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineering . pp. 959 – 975 . 69 Part 2
   Google Scholar
• Schneider , N. and Cornuelle , B. D. 2005 . The forcing of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation . J. Clim. , 18 (21) : 4355 – 4373 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwing , F.B. , Murphree , T. and Green , P. M. 2002 . The Northern Oscillation Index (NOI): A new climate index . Prog. Oceanogr. , 53 (2–4) : 115 – 139 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seymour , R. J. 1998 . Effects of El Niño on the west coast wave climate . Shore and Beach , 66 : 3 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , J. , Taylor , R.B. , Forbes , D.L. , Ruz , M. H. and Solomon , S. 1998 . Sensitivity of the coast of Canada to sea level rise , GSC Report No. 505 79 Ottawa
   Google Scholar
• Storlazzi , C.D. , Willis , C.M. and Griggs , G.B. 2000 . Comparative impacts of the 1982–83 and 1997–98 El Niño Winters on the central California coast . J. Coast. Res. , 16 : 1022 – 1036 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subbotina , M. M. , Thomson , R. E. and Rabinovich , A. B. 2001 . Spectral characteristics of sea level variability along the west coast of North America during the 1982–83 and 1997–98 El Niño events . Prog. Oceanogr. , 49 : 353 – 373 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timmermann , A. , Oberhuber , J. , Bacher , A. , Esch , M. , Latif , M. and Roeckner , E. 1999 . Increased El Niño frequency in a climate model forced by future greenhouse warming . Nature , 398 : 694 – 696 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titus , J.G. , Park , R.A. , Leatherman , S.P. , Weggel , J.R. , Greene , M.S. , Mausel , P.W. , Brown , S. , Gaunt , C. , Trehan , M. and Yohe , G. 1991 . Greenhouse effect and sea level rise: The cost of holding back the sea . Coast. Manag. , 19 (2) : 171 – 204 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trenberth , K. E. and Hurrell , J.W. 1995 . “ Decadal coupled atmosphere‐ocean variations in the North Pacific Ocean ” . In Climate change and northern fish population , Edited by: Beamish , R. J. Vol. 121 , 14 – 24 . Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci. .
   Google Scholar
• Walker , I. J. and Barrie , J.V. 2007 . Geomorphology and sea‐level rise on one of Canada's most ‘sensitive’ coasts: Northeast Graham Island, British Columbia . J. Coast. Res. , 39 : 220 – 226 .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , R.T. , ed. 2001 . IPCC Third Assessment Report: Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report IPCC , 184 Switzerland : Geneva .
   Google Scholar
• Wolter , K. and Timlin , M.S. Monitoring ENSO in COADS with a seasonally adjusted principal component index . Proc. of the 17th Climate Diagnostics Workshop, Norman, OK, NOAA/N MC/CAC, NSSL, Oklahoma Climate . Survey. pp. 52 – 57 . CIMMS and the School of Meteorol., Univ. of Oklahoma .
   Google Scholar
• Wolter , K. and Timlin , M.S. 1998 . Measuring the strength of ENSO – how does 1997/98 rank . Weather , 53 : 315 – 324 .
   Google Scholar
• Zhang , Y. , Wallace , J.M. and Battisti , D. S. 1997 . ENSO like inter‐decadal variability: 1900–93 . J. Clim. , 10 : 1004 – 1020 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corresponding author's e‐mail: [email protected]
   Google Scholar