REFERENCES

• O'BrienJM.Alexander and Dionysius: the invisible enemy.Ann Scholarship.1980183105
   Google Scholar
• BerriosG.PorterR.eds.A History of Clinical Psychiatry. The Origin and History of Mental Disorders. London, UK: The Athlone Press;1995656
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association;1994
   Google Scholar
• FowlerIL.CarrVJ.CarterNT.LewinTJ.Patterns of current and lifetime substance use in schizophrenia.Schizophr Bull.1998244434559718636
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcohol consumption.Encyclopaedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com. Chicago, III: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. Accessed February 12,2003
   Google Scholar
• BallB.De tous les poisons qui peuvent, à divers degrés, exercer une influence délétère sur l'économie, l'alcool est incontestablement celui dont les effets ont été le plus soigneusement décrits et le plus minutieusement étudiés.Leçons sur les maladies mentales. Paris, France: Asselin et Ce;1880-1883608
   Google Scholar
• BodeW.Die Trunksucht als Krankheit und ihre Behandlung [Alcoholism as an illness and its treatment]. Weimar, Germany: W. Bodes Verlag1901 15
   Google Scholar
• RodgersB.KortenAE.JormAF.et al.Risk factors for depression and anxiety in abstainers, moderate drinkers and heavy drinkers.Addiction.2000121833184511177498
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MoscatoBS.RussellM.ZieleznyM.et al.Gender differences in the relation between depressive symptoms and alcohol problems: a longitudinal perspective.Am J Epidemiol.19971469669679400339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DixitAR.CrumRM.Prospective study of depression and the risk of heavy alcohol use in women.Am J Psychiatry.200015775175810784468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RoyA.DeJongJ.LamparskiD.et al.Mental disorders among alcoholics. Relationship to age of onset and cerebrospinal fluid neuropeptides.Arch Gen Psychiatry.1991484234271673594
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PreisigM.FentonBT.StevensDE.et al.Familial relationship between mood disorders and alcoholism.Compr Psychiatry.200142879511244143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ChengappaKN.LevineJ.GershonS.et al.Lifetime prevalence of substance or alcohol abuse and dependence among subjects with bipolar I and II disorders in a voluntary registry.Bipolar Disord.20002(3 pt 1)191S195S
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SaundersJB.WilliamsR.The genetics of alcoholism: is there an inherited susceptibility to alcohol-related problems?.Alcohol Alcohol.198349430435
   Google Scholar
• WinokurG.CadoretR.DorzabJ.et al.Depressive disease. A genetic study.Arch Gen Psychiatry.1971241351445539859
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LittrellJ.Understanding and Treating Alcoholism. Vol. 2. Biological, Psychological and Social Aspects of Alcohol Consumption and Abuse. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates;1991
   Google Scholar
• RadelM.GoldmanD.Pharmacogenetics of alcohol response and alcoholism: the interplay of genes and environmental factors in thresholds for alcoholism.Drug Metab Dispos.200129(4 pt 2)48949411259338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LohEW.BailD.Role of the GABA(A)beta2, GABA(A)alpha6, GABA(A)alpha1 and GABA(A)gamma2 receptor subunit genes cluster in drug responses and the development of alcohol dependence.Neurochem Int.20003741342310871693
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NielsenDA.VirkkunenM.LappalainenJ.et al.A tryptophan hydroxylase gene marker for suicidally and alcoholism.Arch Gen Psychiatry.1998555936029672049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LappalainenJ.LongJC.EggertM.et al.Linkage of antisocial alcoholism to the serotonin 5-HT1B receptor gene in 2 populations.Arch Gen Psychiatry.1998559899949819067
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HillSY.ZezzaN.WipprechtG.et al.Linkage studies of D2 and D4 receptor genes and alcoholism.Am J Med Genet.19998867668510581489
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KentTA.CampbellJL.PazdernïkTL.et al.Blood platelet uptake of serotonin in men alcoholics.J Stud Alcohol.1985463573594033134
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• WilsonAW.CostallB.NeillJC.Manipulation of operant responding for an ethanol-paired conditioned stimulus in the rat by pharmacological alteration of the serotonergic system.J Psychopharmacol.20001434034611198050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GreenfieldSF.WeissRD.MuenzLR.et al.The effect of depression on return to drinking.Arch Gen Psychiatry.1998552592659510220
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CirauloDA.BarnhillJG.JaffeJH.Clinical pharmacokinetics of îmïpramïne and desipramine in alcoholics and normal volunteers.Clin Pharmacol Ther.1988435095183365915
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SchafferA.NaranjoCA.Recommended drug treatment strategies for the alcoholic patient.Drugs.1998565715859806104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NaranjoCA.KnokeDM.BremnerKE.Variations in response to citalopram in men and women with alcohol dependence.J Psychiatry Neurosci.20002526927510863887
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JanïrïL.GobbïG.MannelliP.etal.Effects of fluoxetine at antidepressant doses on short-term outcome of detoxified alcoholics.Int Clin Psychopharmacol.199611109117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JaniriL.HadjïchrïstosA.BuonannoA.et al.Adjuvant trazodone in the treatment of alcoholism: an open study.Alcohol Alcohol.1998333623659719394
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MalkaR.LooH.GanryH.et al.Long-term administration of tianeptine in depressed patients after alcohol withdrawal.Br J Psychiatry Suppl.19921566711389025
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• AltamuraAC.MauriMC.GirardiT.etal.Alcoholism and depression: a placebo-controlled study with viloxazine.Int J Clin Pharmacol Res.1990102932982079386
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• RammesG.MahalB.PutzkeJ.etal.The anti-craving compound acamprosate acts as a weak NMDA receptor antagonist, but modulates NMDA receptor subunit expression similar to memantine and MK-801 .Neuropharmacology.20014074976011369029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• StrombergMF.MacklerSA.VolpïcellïJR.O'BrienCP.Effect of acamprosate and naltrexone, alone or in combination, on ethanol consumption.Alcohol.20012310911611331108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GatelyI.La Diva Nicotina. The Story of How Tobacco Seduced the World. London, UK: Simon & Schuster20013
   Google Scholar
• CarlsonJ.NoguchiK.EllisonG.Nicotine produces selective degeneration in the medial habenula and fasciculus retroflexus.Brain Res.200190612713411430869
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SlotkïnTA.PinkertonKE.AumanJT.QiaoD.SeidlerFJ.Perinatal exposure to environmental tobacco smoke upregulates nicotinic cholinergic receptors in monkey brain.Dev Brain Res.200213317517911882347
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ZanardiA.LeoG.BiaginiG.ZoliM.Nicotine and neurodegeneration in aging.Toxicol Lett.200212720721512052660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PierceJ.GilpinE.How long will today's adolescent smoker be addicted to cigarettes?.Am J Public Health.1996862532568633747
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comité Française d'Education pour la Santé (CFES).Baromètre Santé 1997. Vanves, France: CNAM-TS, DGS;1998
   Google Scholar
• KishimotoT.DominoEF.Effects of tobacco smoking and abstinence on middle latency auditory evoked potentials.Clin Pharmacol Ther.1998635715799630830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KaneGP.Psychosocial factors and nicotine dependence. In: Cocores JA, ed.The Clinical Management of Nicotine Dependence. New York, NY: SpringerVerlag;19912835
   Google Scholar
• PoulinC.Medical and nonmedical stimulant use among adolescents: from sanctioned to unsanctioned use.CMAJ.20011651039104411699699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WangMQ.FitzhughEC.WesterfieldRC.EddyJM.Family and peer influences on smoking behavior among American adolescents: an age trend.J Adolesc Health.1995162002037779829
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• S'arrêter de fumer: étude réalisée auprès des anciens fumeurs. Montrouge, France: Sofres; 2001. Available at: http://www.sofres.com/etudes/sante/110601_nonfum.htm. Accessed February 12. 2003
   Google Scholar
• SztulmanH.Vers le concept de personnalités limites addictives.Ann Med Psychol.2001159201207
   Google Scholar
• BatelP.PessïoneF.MaîtreC.RueffB.Relationship between alcohol and tobacco dependencies among alcoholics who smoke.Addiction.1995909779807663320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JonesCL.BattjesRJ.The context and caveats of prevention research and abuse. In: Jones CL, Battjes RJ, eds.Etiology of Drug Abuse: Implications for Prevention. NIDA Research Monograph No. 56. Washington, DC: USDHHS, Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, National Institute on Drug Abuse;1985112
   Google Scholar
• ColbySM.TiffanyST.ShiffmanS.NiauraRS.Are adolescents smokers dependent on nicotine? A review of the evidence.Drug Alcohol Depend.200059(suppl 1)S83S9510773439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MoolchanET.ErnstM.HennïngfieldJE.A review of tobacco smoking in adolescents: treatment implications.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.20003968269310846302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• JarvisMJ.Does caffeine intake enhance absolute levels of cognitive performance?.Psychopharmacology.199311045527870897
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MaesHH.WoodardCE.MurrelleL.et al.Tobacco, alcohol and drug use in eight- to sixteen-year-old twins: the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development.J Stud Alcohol.19906029330510371255
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• HeathAC.CatesR.MartinNG.et al.Genetic contribution to risk of smoking initiation: comparisons across birth cohorts and across cultures.J Subst Abuse.199352212468312729
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perez-StableEJ.HerreraB.JacobP 3rd.BenowitzNL.Nicotine metabolism and intake in black and white smokers.JAMA.19982801791809669793
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NakajimaM.YamamotoT.NunoyaK.et al.Role of human cytochrome P4502A6 in C-oxidation of nicotine.Drug Metab Dispos.199624121212178937855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PianezzaML.SellersEM.TyndaleRF.Nicotine metabolism defect reduces smoking.Nature.19993937509655391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OscarsonM.Genetic polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 2A6 (CYP2A6) gene: implications for interindividual differences in nicotine metabolism.Drug Metab Dispos.200129919511159795
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LoriotMA.RebuissouS.OscarsonM.et al.Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2A6 in a case-control study on lung cancer in a French population.Pharmacogenetics.200111394411207029
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LermanC.CaporasoNE.AudrainJ.et al.Evidence suggesting the role of specific genetic factors in cigarette smoking.Health Psychol.19991814209925041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ComingsDE.FerryL.Bradshaw-RobinsonS.BurchetteR.ChiuC.MuhlemanD.The dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene: a genetic risk factor in smoking.Pharmacogenetics.1996673798845863
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association;1980
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association;1968
   Google Scholar
• HughesJR.GustSW.PechacekTF.Prevalence of tobacco dependence and withdrawal.Am J Pscychiatry.1987144205208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.3rd ed, revised. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association 1987
   Google Scholar
• StantonWR.DSM-III-R tobacco dependence and quitting during late adolescence.Addict Behav.1995205956038712057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization.The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders. Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization;1992
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization.International Classification of Diseases. 9th Revision. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization;1977177213
   Google Scholar
• HughesJR.HlgginsST.BickelWK.Nicotine withdrawal versus other drug withdrawal syndromes: similarities and dissimilarities.Addiction.199489146114707841857
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HughesJR.Why does smoking so often produce dependence? A somewhat different view.Tobacco Control.200110626411226363
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SmythM.BrowneF.General Household Survey. London, UK: HMSO;1990
   Google Scholar
• HennïngfieldJE.SchuhLM.JarvikME.Pathophysiology of tobacco dependence. In: Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ, eds.Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress. New York, NY: Raven Press;199517151729
   Google Scholar
• NelsonDE.GiovinoGA.EmontSE.et al.Trends in cigarette smoking among US physicians and nurses.JAMA.1994271127312758151902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SilagyC.LancasterT.SteadL.MantD.FowlerG.Nicotine Replacement Therapy for Smoking Cessation (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library. Oxford, UK: Update Software;20021
   Google Scholar
• ShifmanS.MasonKM.HennïngfieldJE.Tobacco dependence treatments: review and prospectus.Annu Rev Public Health.1998193353589611623
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Report of the Surgeon General.Nicotine Addiction. The Health Consequences of Smoking. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services;1988210
   Google Scholar
• JorenbyDE.LeïschowSJ.NïdesMA.etal.A controlled trial of sustained-release bupropion, a nicotine patch, or both for smoking cessation.N Engl J Med.199934068569110053177
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DalyJW.FredholmBB.Caffeine - an atypical drug of dependence.Drug Alcohol Depend.1998511992069716941
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HughesJR.McHughP.HoltzmanS.Caffeine and schizophrenia.Psychiatr Services.19984914151417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KendlerKS.PrescottCA.Caffeine intake, tolerance, and withdrawal in women: a population-based twin study.Am J Psych ia try.1999156223228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OberstarJV.BernsteinGA.ThurasPD.Caffeine use and dependence in adolescents: one-year follow-up.J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol.20021212713512188981
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HughesJR.OlivetoAH.LiguoriA.CarpenterJ.HowardT.Endorsement of DSM-IV dependence criteria among caffeine users.Drug Alcohol Depend.199852991079800139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed, Text Revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association;2000
   Google Scholar
• LaneJD.Phillips-ButeBG.Caffeine deprivation affects vigilance performance and mood.Physiol Behav.1998651711759811379
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GriffithsRR.ChausmerAL.Caffeine as a model drug of dependence: recent developments in understanding caffeine withdrawal, the caffeine dependence syndrome, and caffeine negative reinforcement.Jpn J Neuropsychopharmacol.200020223231
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• GreenbergJL.LewisSE.DoddDK.Overlapping addictions and selfesteem among college men and women.Addict Behav.19992456557110466852
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar