Metacognitive Control: Children's Short-Term Versus Long-Term Study Strategies

References

• Tulving, E. (1967). The effects of presentation and recall of material in free recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 175-184.
   Google Scholar
• Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of episodic memory. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89-195). New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Benjamin, A. S., Bjork, R. A., & Schwartz, B. L. (1998). The mismeasure of memory: When retrieval fluency is misleading as a metamnemonic index. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 55-68.
   Google Scholar
• Birnbaum, I. M., & Eichner, J. T. (1971). Study versus test trials and long-term retention in free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 516-521.
   Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A. (1975). Short-term storage: The ordered output of a central processor. In F. Restle, R. M. Shiffrin, N. J. Castellan, H. R. Lindman, & D. B. Pisoni (Eds.), Cognitive theory (pp. 151-171). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A. (1988). Retrieval practice. In M. Gruneberg & P. E. Morris (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues, Vol. 1: Memory in everyday life (pp. 396-401). New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A., & Allen, T. W. (1970). The spacing effect: Consolidation or differential encoding. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 567-572.
   Google Scholar
• Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. New York: Pergamon.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 65-116). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, J. (1958). Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 10, 2-21.
   Google Scholar
• Cahill, A., & Toppino, T. C. (1993). Young children's recognition as a function of the spacing of repetitions and the type of study and test stimuli. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31, 481-484.
   Google Scholar
• Calvert, S. L. (1991). Presentational features for young children's production and recall of information. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 12, 367-378.
   Google Scholar
• Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. (1998). Training programs to improve learning in later adulthood: Helping older adults educate themselves. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 249-276). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Dunlosky, J., & Nelson, T. O. (1992). Importance of the kind of cue for judgments of learning (JOL) and the delayed-JOL effect. Memory & Cognition, 20, 374-380.
   Google Scholar
• Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E. (1993). Maintenance of foreign language vocabulary and the spacing effect. Psychological Science, 4, 316-321.
   Google Scholar
• Bahrick, H. P., & Phelps, E. (1987). Retention of Spanish vocabulary over 8 years. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 344-349.
   Google Scholar
• Begg, I., Snider, A., Foley, F., & Goddard, R. (1989). The generation effect is no artifact: Generating makes words distinctive. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 977-989.
   Google Scholar
• Donovan, J. J., & Radosevich, D. J. (1999). A meta-analytic review of the distribution of practice effect: Now you see it, now you don't. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 795-805.
   Google Scholar
• Dufresne, A., & Kobasigawa, A. (1988). Developmental differences in children's spontaneous allocation of study time. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 149, 87-92.
   Google Scholar
• Dufresne, A., & Kobasigawa, A. (1989). Children's spontaneous allocation of study time: Differential and sufficient aspects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 47, 274-296.
   Google Scholar
• Dunlosky, J., & Nelson, T. O. (1994). Does the sensitivity of judgments of learning (JOLs) to the effects of various study activities depend on when the JOLs occur? Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 545-565.
   Google Scholar
• Dunlosky, J., & Nelson, T. O. (1997). Similarity between the cue for judgments of learning (JOL) and the cue for test is not the primary determinant of JOL accuracy. Journal of Memory and Language, 36, 34-49.
   Google Scholar
• Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231-235). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognitive and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906-911.
   Google Scholar
• Flavell, J. H., & Wellman, H. M. (1977). Metamemory. In R. V. Kail & J. W. Hagen (Eds.), Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition (pp. 3-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Gardiner, J. M., Craik, F. I., & Bleasdale, F. A. (1973). Retrieval difficulty and subsequent recall. Memory & Cognition, 1, 213-216.
   Google Scholar
• Gardiner, J. M., & Hampton, J. A. (1985). Semantic memory and the generation effect: Some tests of the lexical activation hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 732-741.
   Google Scholar
• Gardiner, J. M., & Rowley, J. M. (1984). A generation effect with numbers rather than words. Memory & Cognition, 12, 443-445.
   Google Scholar
• King, J. F., Zechmeister, E. B., & Shaughnessy, J. J. (1980). Judgments of knowing: The influence of retrieval practice. American Journal of Psychology, 93, 329-343.
   Google Scholar
• Kluwe, R. H. (1982). Cognitive knowledge and executive control. In D. Griffin (Ed.), Human mind-Animal mind (pp. 201-224). New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Kobasigawa, A., & Metcalf-Haggert, A. (1993). Spontaneous allocation of study time by first-and third-grade children in a simple memory task. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 154, 223-235.
   Google Scholar
• Koriat, A. (1975). Phonetic symbolism and feeling of knowing. Memory & Cognition, 3, 545-548.
   Google Scholar
• Koriat, A. (1993). How do we know what we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychological Review, 100, 609-639.
   Google Scholar
• Koriat, A. (1998). Metamemory: The feeling of knowing and its vagaries. In M. Sabourin & F. Craik (Eds.), Advances in psychological science: Vol. 2. Biological and cognitive aspects (pp. 461-479). Hove, England: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1996). Monitoring and control processes in the strategic regulation of memory accuracy. Psychological Review, 103, 490-517.
   Google Scholar
• Graf, P. (1980). Two consequences of generating: Increased inter- and intraword organization of sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 316-327.
   Google Scholar
• Hart, J. T. (1965). Memory and the feeling-of-knowing experience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 208-216.
   Google Scholar
• Hintzman, D. L. (1969). Recognition time: Effects of recency, frequency and the spacing of repetitions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79, 192-194.
   Google Scholar
• Hintzman, D. L. (1974). Theoretical implications of the spacing effect. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Theories in cognitive psychology: The Loyola Symposium (pp. 77-99). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Jacoby, L. L. (1978). On interpreting the effects of repetition: Solving a problem versus remembering a solution. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 649-667.
   Google Scholar
• Johns, E. E., & Swanson, L. G. (1988). The generation effect with nonwords. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 180-190.
   Google Scholar
• Kelemen, W. L., & Weaver, C. A. III, (1997). Enhanced metamemory at delays: Why do judgments of learning improve over time? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 1394-1409.
   Google Scholar
• Kimball, D. R., & Metcalfe, J. (2003). Delaying judgments of learning affects memory, not metamemory. Memory & Cognition, 31, 918-929.
   Google Scholar
• Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1998). The role of metacognitive processes in the regulation of memory performance. In G. Mazzoni & T. O. Nelson (Eds.). Metacognition and cognitive neuropsychology: Monitoring and control processes (pp. 97-118). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Koriat, A., & Shitzer-Reichert, R. (2002). Metacognitive judgments and their accuracy. In P. Chambres & M. Izaute (Eds.), Metacognition: Process, function and use (pp. 1-17). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Landauer, T. K. (1967). Interval between item repetitions and free recall memory. Psychonomic Science, 8, 439-440.
   Google Scholar
• Glenberg, A. M. (1987). Temporal context and recency. In D. S. Gorfein & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), Memory and learning: The Ebbinghaus Centennial Conference (pp. 173-190). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Landauer, T. K., & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Optimal rehearsal patterns and name learning. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp. 625-632). London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leonesio, R. J., & Nelson, T. O. (1990). Do different metamemory judgments tap the same underlying aspects of memory? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 464-470.
   Google Scholar
• Lovelace, E. A. (1984). Metamemory: Monitoring future recallability during study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10, 756-766.
   Google Scholar
• Mazzoni, G., & Cornoldi, C. (1993). Strategies in study-time allocation: Why is study time sometimes not effective? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 47-60.
   Google Scholar
• Mazzoni, G., Cornoldi, C., & Marchitelli, G. (1990). Do memorability ratings affect study-time allocation? Memory & Cognition, 18, 196-204.
   Google Scholar
• Mazzoni, G., Cornoldi, C., Tomat, L., & Vecchi, T. (1997). Remembering the grocery shopping list: A study on metacognitive biases. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11, 253-267.
   Google Scholar
• Mazzoni, G., & Nelson, T. O. (1995). Judgments of learning are affected by the kind of encoding in ways that cannot be attributed to the level of recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 1263-1274.
   Google Scholar
• Metcalfe, J., & Kornell, N. (2003). The dynamics of learning and allocation of study time to a region of proximal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 530-542.
   Google Scholar
• Metcalfe, J., Schwartz, B. L., & Joaquim, S. G. (1993). The cue-familiarity heuristic in metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 851-864.
   Google Scholar
• Metcalfe, J., & Shimamura, A. P. (1994). Metacognition: Knowing about knowing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Metcalfe, J., & Weibe, D. (1987). Intuition in insight and noninsight problem solving. Memory & Cognition, 15, 238-246.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
   Google Scholar
• Mohs, R. C., Wescourt, K. T., & Atkinson, R. C. (1973). Effects of short-term memory contents on short- and long-term memory searches. Memory & Cognition, 1, 443-448.
   Google Scholar
• Murdock, B. B., Jr. (1974). Human memory: Theory and data. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Nairne, J. S., & Widner, R. L. (1987). Generation effects with nonwords: The role of test appropriateness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 164-171.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, T. O. (1984). A comparison of current measures of the accuracy of feeling-of-knowing predictions. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 109-133.
   Google Scholar
• Glenberg, A. M., & Smith, S. M. (1981). Spacing repetitions and solving problems are not the same. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 110-119.
   Google Scholar
• Glover, J. A. (1989). The "testing" phenomenon: Not gone but nearly forgotten. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 392-399.
   Google Scholar
• Glover, J. A., & Corkill, A. J. (1987). Influence of paraphrased repetitions on the spacing effect. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 198-199.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, T. O. (1988). Predictive accuracy of the feeling of knowing across different criterion tasks and across different subject populations and individuals. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues (pp. 190-196). Chichester, England: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, T. O., & Dunlosky, J. (1991). When people's judgments of learning (JOL) are extremely accurate at predicting subsequent recall: The delayed-JOL effect. Psychological Science, 2, 267-270.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, T. O., & Dunlosky, J. (1994). How shall we explain the delayed-judgment-of-learning effect? Psychological Science, 3, 317-318.
   Google Scholar
• Zechmeister, E. B., & Shaughnessy, J. J. (1980). When you know that you know and when you think that you know but you don't. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 15, 41-44.
   Google Scholar
• Thiede, K. W., & Dunlosky, J. (1994). Delaying students' metacognitive monitoring improves their accuracy in predicting their recognition performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 290-302.
   Google Scholar
• Thiede, K. W., & Dunlosky, J. (1999). Toward a general model of self-regulated study: An analysis of selection of items for study and self-paced study time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 1024-1037.
   Google Scholar
• Toppino, T. C. (1991). The spacing effect in young children's free recall: Support for automatic-process explanations. Memory & Cognition, 19, 159-167.
   Google Scholar
• Tulving, E. (1984). Multiple learning and memory systems. In K. M. J. Lagerspetz & P. Niemi (Eds.), Psychology in the 1990s (pp. 163-184). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Underwood, B. J. (1966). Individual and group predictions of item difficulty for free-recall learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71, 673-679.
   Google Scholar
• Underwood, B. J. (1970). A breakdown of the total-time law in free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 573-580.
   Google Scholar
• Vesonder, G., & Voss, J. (1985). On the ability to predict one's own responses while learning. Journal of Memory and Language, 24, 363-376.
   Google Scholar
• Waugh, N. C., & Norman, D. A. (1965). Primary memory. Psychological Review, 72, 89-104.
   Google Scholar
• Weaver, C. A., III, & Kelemen, W. L. (1997). Judgments of learning at delays: Shifts in response patterns or increased metamemory accuracy? Psychological Science, 8, 318-321.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, T. O., Dunlosky, J., Graf, A., & Narens, L. (1994). Utilization of metacognitive judgments in the allocation of study during multitrial learning. Psychological Science, 5, 207-213.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, T. O., & Leonesio, R. J. (1988). Allocation of self-paced study time and the "labor-in-vain effect." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 676-686.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, T. O., Leonesio, R. J., Landwehr, R. S., & Narens, L. (1986). A comparison of three predictors of an individual's memory performance: The individual's feeling of knowing versus the normative feeling of knowing versus base-rate item difficulty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12, 279-287.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, T. O., & Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 26, pp. 125-141) New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, T. O., & Narens, L. (1994). Why investigate metacognition? In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 1-25). Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 12-21.
   Google Scholar
• Rea, C. P., & Modigliani, V. (1987). The spacing effect in 4- to 9-year-old children. Memory & Cognition, 15, 436-443.
   Google Scholar
• Schacter, D. L., & Tulving, E. (1994). What are the memory systems of 1994? In D. L. Schacter & E. Tulving (Eds.), Memory systems (pp. 1-38). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz, B. L., & Metcalfe, J. (1994). Methodological problems and pitfalls in the study of human metacognition. In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 93-113). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz, B. L., & Smith, S. M. (1997). The retrieval of related information influences tip-of-the-tongue states. Journal of Memory & Language, 36, 68-86.
   Google Scholar
• Shaughnessy, J. J., Zimmerman, J., & Underwood, B. J. (1972). Further evidence on the MP-DP effect in free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 1-12.
   Google Scholar
• Shiffrin, R. M. (1973 Information persistence in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 100, 39-49.
   Google Scholar
• Simon, D., & Bjork, R. A. (2001 Metacognition in motor learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 907-912.
   Google Scholar
• Slamecka, N. J., & Graf, P. (1978). The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 4, 592-604.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, S. M., Brown, J. M., & Balfour, S. P. (1991). TOTimals: A controlled experimental method for studying tip-of-the-tongue states. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 29, 445-447.
   Google Scholar
• Son, L. K. (2004). Metacognitively controlled spacing of study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 601-604.
   Google Scholar
• Son, L. K., & Metcalfe, J. (2000). Metacognitive and control strategies in study-time allocation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 204-221.
   Google Scholar
• Toppino, T. C., & DiGeorge, W. (1984). The spacing effect in free recall emerges with development. Memory & Cognition, 12, 118-122.
   Google Scholar
• McFarland, C. E., Duncan, E., & Bruno, J. M. (1983). Developmental aspects of the generation effect. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 36, 413-428.
   Google Scholar
• Melton, A. W. (1970). The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 596-606.
   Google Scholar
• Metcalfe, J. (2002). Is study time allocated selectively to a region of proximal learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 349-363.
   Google Scholar
• Koriat, A. (1995). Dissociating knowing and the feeling of knowing: Further evidence for the accessibility model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 311-333.
   Google Scholar
• Glenberg, A. M. (1979). Component-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition. Memory & Cognition, 7, 95-112.
   Google Scholar
• Dempster, F. N. (1988). The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research. American Psychologist, 43, 627-634.
   Google Scholar
• Glenberg, A. M. (1976). Monotonic and nonmonotonic lag effects in paired-associate and recognition memory paradigms. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 15, 1-16.
   Google Scholar
• Glenberg, A. M. (1977). Influences of retrieval processes on the spacing effect in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3, 282-294.
   Google Scholar
• Dempster, F. N. (1987). Effects of variable encoding and spaced presentations on vocabulary learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 162-170.
   Google Scholar
• Koriat, A. (1997). Monitoring one's own knowledge during study: A cue-utilization approach to judgments of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126, 349-370.
   Google Scholar
• Toppino, T. C. (1993). The spacing effect in preschool children's free recall of pictures and words. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31, 27-30.
   Google Scholar
• Craik, F. I. M. (1970). The fate of primary memory items in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 143-148.
   Google Scholar